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Abstract
In recent decades, much research has been conducted in the context of domestic violence, especially violence against women and children; But in related to another form of domestic violence, or sibling abuse, not only has little attention been paid by researchers, but most parents also ignore their children's violent behavior toward each other as a common childish behavior. However, most of these cases have profound and destructive effects on children's social development and cognition, and consequently increase the likelihood of committing criminal behaviors. Among these, social and cultural factors are a hidden phenomenon that determines the shape of individual relationships in families. The present study describes the prevalence of sibling abuse with the aim of examining the economic, cultural and social contexts of student families.
     The survey study was conducted among 600 high school students in districts one and six of Mashhad using a researcher-made questionnaire in two sections: self-reported victimization and delinquency with Cronbach's alpha 0.918, and was conducted in the academic year 2020-2021. Data analysis shows that the cultural and social characteristics of families such as inadequate parental education, poverty and unemployment, affect the prevalence of sibling violence, and violence among students with lower levels of family background was more prevalent in compare to others.
    This study shows that social factors and cultural level within families affect the level of violence between children; therefore, if a society can strengthen the normative and cultural components of families through education and the media, it can improve the health of families. The Iranian legislature has taken an important step to combat this type of behavioral violence by passing the Child and Adolescent Protection Act 2020.
 
Keywords: Domestic Violence, Brother-Sister Abuse, Victim Self-Report, Crime Self-Report, Mashhad High School Students

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Abstract
Child sexual abuse is one of the social problems that has devastating effects on various aspects of children's personality. In this article, an attempt has been made to examine the psychological consequences of sexual harassment in related to children. The main purpose of this study is to identify the psychological, behavioral, cognitive and emotional consequences of sexual victimization of children under 15 years of age among those referred to four social emergency centers located in Tehran province.
     In this research - which is quantitative in terms of type and descriptive-analytical in terms of method - First, different indicators were selected as the effective factors of sexual victimization and each of the selected data was entered into the statistical tables using the available sampling method and using the researcher questionnaire. Then, the relationship between the variables was measured using statistical tests and the correlations were analyzed.
     The results of the analysis of child sexual abuse cases referred to the social emergency confirm that there is a significant relationship between child sexual abuse and subsequent mental disorders. Hypothesis testing suggests that sexual abuse has psychological, behavioral, cognitive, and emotional consequences for children's personality. Due to the need to identify these factors in order to prevent the occurrence of psycho-behavioral disorders afterwards and increase ways to eliminate or reduce it, early detection of child abuse, intervention, treatment and prevention of horrific complications of child abuse seems necessary.
 
Keywords: Mental Disorder, Mental Health, Mental Consequences, Sexual Victimization, Social Emergency

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Abstract
Today, in the era of the domination of the virtual world over the real world, with the expansion of the Internet and social networks, social communication and subsequent elements of individual identity has undergone extensive quantitative and qualitative changes. Women, as the majority of social media users, are more exposed to threats and psychological harm than ever due to their physical and psychological characteristics. One of the types of harms that can be explained in the context of the knowledge of social psychology is "self-objectification".
     The present study is applied in terms of purpose, and descriptive-survey in terms of implementation. The statistical population of the study is 271 high school girls in Kashan. By distributing a standard questionnaire with closed-ended questions, the necessary information was collected. In the process of objectification, women under the influence of media advertisements, draw ideals for themselves and in the same direction, they constantly evaluate and review themselves, and if they see their appearance closer to current patterns at the media, they gain self-confidence; otherwise, they become involved in physical shame. As a result, their self-confidence appears to be conditioned by the fact that it puts their mental health at risk, and this type of risky behavior based on criminological theories such as the lifestyle theory of Gottfredson and Hindelang is likely Increases victimization; Because the more recreational activities and leisure a person has, and the more she interacts with criminals or in criminal or dangerous environments, the more likely she is to become a victim.
 
Key words: Women Victimization, Social Networks, Self- objectification, Social Prevention

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Aim: School bullying is a worldwide problem and crosses national boundaries. Students involved in bullying have a greater chance of developing emotional and behavioral disorders, as well as a higher risk of engaging in criminal behavior later in their lives. This study aims to examine the prevalence of bullying behavior and some of its associated factors among male middle school students in Tehran, Iran.
Methods: Overall, 1803 middle school students, aged 11 to 15, were enrolled in the study between January and March, 2012. Bullying behavior of and on participants was evaluated using Persian version of the revised Olweus Bully/Victim Questionnaire (OBVQ). Findings: More than 55% of students reported being involved in bullying behaviors in school, either as a victim (51%), a bully (31%) or both a bully and a victim (18%).  The most common subtypes of bullying were verbal (61.3%), physical (47.6%), and indirect (50.3%) bullying. In a regression analysis, the number of students' close friends, their age, their father's education level and home atmosphere were the only significant predictors of bullying behavior.
Conclusion: The prevalence of bullying among Iranian middle school students is highly concerning; hence, implementation of a comprehensive, school-based anti-bullying program is an urgent need because students, who are involved in bullying behavior, are at higher risk for developing psychosocial disorders and engaging in criminal behavior later in their lives.

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Abdolali Tavajjohi Ph.D. Candidate, Tarbiat Modares University Ali Hossein Najafi Abrand Abadi Associate Professor, Department of Law, Shahid beheshti University Victim, is one of the most important elements of crime event, regrettably for which no actual determining position has been found in victimology researches. The authorities of retribution and victimology have focused their best attempts on crime, criminal and conviction; consequently, the victim who often plays an important role in the occurence of the crime is ignored and forgotten. As victimology emerged in recent decades, Concrete steps were taken along the way of scientific study of victims and identitication of their features and action in committing crimes as well. Besides the existence of problems such as lack of sources, the newness of theories, ambiguity in the limits of the subject which make any research about new knowledge difficult, researching and studing victimology include particular problems and constraints without overcoming them, the value and validity of the theories related to this new branch of victimology will be questionable. This article takes into consideration one of the most important problems on the way of victimologists. Considering unreported victims in the various countries of the world, the writers have examined this same subject within a population of one thousand (1000) and come to the result that unfortunately over 60 percent of the victims in Iran have never reported themselves. Reasons such as lack of evidence, distrusting the police preventing loss of face and personality or having family relation with the criminal are the most common reasons why victimization is not reported. Finally, it is concluded that plans and strategies of the related authorities in defying crime would bear no real value of efficiency unless they are based on factual number of victims. So, the responsibles of societies are required to reduce the number of unreported criminal cases-through drawing the victims’ confidence and providing them with facilities of hearing - which often lead to individual vengeane or vicim's seclusion and in other words a new crime or victim.

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Ali A Rahmatian Ph.D. Graduate Faculty, Criminal Justic Program Florida Metropolitan University The purpose of this paper is to describe domestic violence which is a widespread problem affecting families, law enforcement agencies, and the court system Studies investigating the effects of arrests on recidivism in domestic violence cases have led to the implementation of pro-arrest policies in many police agencies. The changing policies have lead to an increase in the number ol domestic violence cases in the court system with limited prosecution of these cases. Police training in the specific dynamics of domestic violence is believed to provide officers with skills necessary in handling these calls safely and accurately, The Lakeland Police Department has developed a comprehensive community project, the Domestic Abuse Response Team (DART), that is designed to reduce the recidivism of domestic violence .in order to serve the victims more efficiently. Examination of components of this program may help to target specific aspects of the training that are useful in reducing recidivism rates, Specific attention is paid to concepts, theories, and models that support the findings that batterers and victims are reacting in a manner they have learned through their family environment and as part of a pattern or cycle of violence in which the abuse is expressed.

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Mohammad Hadi Sadeghi Associate Professor department of Law, Shiraz University  Although the victim consent of a crime has no legal effect on the criminal prohibitory character of the wrong committed by the offender, it can prevent the establishment of the right to retaliate or can cause the waiver of the right. This is due to the fact that the right to request retaliation originally belongs to the victim and it then passes to his family. Hence, the victim has a priority to waive the right. In addition, due to the voluntary character of the committed offence, based on the consent of the victim, no mulct (blood-money) is proven. The offender, therefore, can be sentenced to other forms of punishment merely on the basis of the committed act and not the resulted consequence.

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Mohammad Farajiha Assistant Professor Department of Law, Tarbiat Modarres University  This article attempts to explore the impact of criminological researches and findings on the two main areas of criminal policy: penal policy and victim policy. The question arises, however, that whether there is any connection between the policy reforms and research in these two areas and to what extent. In this article is tried to evaluate how far criminological policy in general and penal and victim policy in particular are research driven? What are the factors that influence policy _ making, and what, if any, is the role of research in it. Regarding penal policy, it draws attention to recent developments in penal law and practice that have caused concern to criminologists and discusses some of the reasons of why criminological finding appear to have had less impact on penal policy than many criminologists had hoped for. It suggests that some of may attach to criminologists for failing to establish a scientific legitimacy for their subject and concludes by arguing that criminology needs independent findings to guarantee a scientific agenda free of direct political influence. Researches on victims of crime in many societies have disclosed some real needs on their part, not only in practical terms, but also in terms of the need for greater attention from criminal justice agencies and for enhanced participation in the legal process. The rights of victims have been recognized on the level of declared policies and legislation, but, as in other areas of criminal policy, these policies are not necessarily based upon the findings of research. In victim policy, however, the conclusion that "nothing works" - which was claimed earlier in relation to penal interventions - would be premature. The problem is rather that "nothing is fully implemented.

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Sacrifice has been always one of the most current ritual practices in Iran. Nowadays, in Iran, the concept of victim is limited to blood sacrifice, but in some areas of Iran, such as the south, southwest and desert margins such as Khor, Biyabanak and Tabas, this ritual is totally current during the return of the pilgrimage from God’s house, at the wedding ceremony and more importantly everyone sacrifices the palm tree before the first day of new Year and the Farvardin 13^th. In this article,  By relying on historical, mythological and symbolic studies, the author showed that the principle of the palm tree’s sacrifice  is rooted in the fertility rituals of the mythology of the changing season (spring equinox), especially the Tammuz, because the palm tree is the symbol of  Tammuz which is the god of Mesopotamian martyrdom. The rituals of Tammuz are also similar to the sacrifice of palm in several respects: the main character in both ceremonies is Tammuz. In ancient ritual of Tammuz, the palm is crystalized as a victim god (martyr-resurrector) and in today tradition is represented as the symbol of fertility (the cycle of death – nature’s tradition). Both ceremonies are held at 1^st Farvardin and ordibehesht. Tammuz has been based on fertility. In popular beliefs, it is also emphasized that cottage cheese, palm cheese, palm fruit and other components are effective in improving men's sex and fertility. Another important point is that the ritual is collectively organized on the ground (Nakhlestan). The baking of bread is also a common tradition of both religions.
 

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The issue of "victimless crimes" or "consensual crimes" is a new issue, and at the same time a very important one in the realm of the studies regarding "victimology", as a now branch of criminal sciences. The novelty of the issue, specifically in the Iranian criminal law, its vagueness, and the relationship of victimless crimes with some criminal policy issues like criminal proceeding, criminal statistics, fear of crime, crime prevention and restorative justice reveal the significance of the point. This article deals with the most important issues in this regard, namely defining and realizing samples of this kind of crimes, in order to get a better understanding and recognition of the concept of "victimless crimes" or in other words "crimes without direct victim", and also to determine the samples of this kind of crimes. The article deals also with the basic elements mentioned in the definition particularly the triple elements, that is victim, damage and consensus Finally, the article examines the relation between morality and victimless crimes and compares them.

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Girl in a Fur Coat is the name of a motif in which a girl escapes her father's harassment. She is looking for a way to escape and find the solution in a skin that covers her from head to toe. This motif, which is classified in the Arne-Thompson list under number 510B, is called "donkey skin". In the classification of Iranian tales, it is called "Cinderella" and in the classification of Arabic tales it is called "shirt like the sun, shirt like the moon and shirt like the stars". This article tries to introduce the mentioned type because it is not well-known among Iranian researchers of folk literature. In addition, by using the collection of works in which the folk tales of Iran as well as the lands of Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Morocco, Sudan, Palestine, Iraq and Jordan are gathered, the Iranian and Arabic narratives are analyzed. To this aim, these narrations can be divided into several categories. Studies show that based on the girl's solution to escape from her father's house, the narrations of this motif can be divided into three categories: 1-510B: The girl hidden in the object; 2-510B: Girl in a fur coat / wooden mannequin; 3-510B: The girl and her brother. Also, this research, based on Propp's hypertext model, seeks to find the beliefs and customs that make up the "fur-clad girl". Myths and customs found in Zurvanism and Zoroastrianism can be considered as the origin for this type in Iranian stories, because it mentions the intercourse of Ahura Mazda with his mother, sister and daughter, and considers "xᵛaētuuadaθa" a ritual and sacred act.
 

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"Restorative Justice" is a new model in criminal justice which emphasizes on reviving of the victim’s rights and settling the problems arised from the commission of offences with active participation of the victim and community and also offender via negotiation and reparation of damages and making peace among them. "Reconciliation" is one of important and emphatic procedures in Islam in case of disputes and divergences, which is done with participation of all people in the Islamic society and free participating of the dispute parties. This essay, meanwhile, intends to study the concept of "Reconciliation", its characteristics, and the adaptability of "Restorative Justice" with this concept and performance of "Restorative Justice" under the light of "Reconciliation".

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Human trafficking is a process involving different criminal behaviors based on human trade to exploit them. Protocol to prevent, suppress and punish trafficking in persons, especially women and children (Palermo Protocol) defines the crime of human trafficking, which is committed by criminal groups to obtain financial or material benefits usually through crossing the borders of countries as organized and transnational. Nevertheless, this crime is not identified essentially organized in German law and convention on action against trafficking in human beings (Warsaw Convention). Warsaw Convention has explicitly identified the crime of human trafficking as violation of human rights since it ignores basic rights of human beings such as the right to select. It has also settled some tasks for governments to support victims. Human trafficking in Germany includes all forms of sexual and labour exploitations, and national/transnational trafficking. German legislation has devised some supportive strategies following the thoughts of human rights. In Iran, the so-called law of “combat against human trafficking” has not defined this crime as organized, and identifies it relevant just when accompanied by crossing the borders. Therefore, it is adequate to revise the law in addition to generalize it to all forms of national/transnational trafficking whereas being organized can intensify punishments of offenders. Islamic thoughts and human rights can further insist on supporting victims while joining the convention against transnational organized crime, and Palermo Protocol will contribute to cooperate with other countries in order to combat against human traffickers.

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 Victim participation refers to a state in which the victims are granted meaningful right to actively participate in the different stages of proceedings and to present their views and concerns. Truth finding, reconciliation, norm stabilization, and restoration of the rule of law are considered among the most important objectives of participation. Rome Statute has not recognized a real right for initiation of the proceedings for the victims and, in this stage, their participatory rights in initiation of investigations is very limited. But compared to this stage, the International Criminal Court has accepted relatively wider participatory rights for the preliminary investigations’ stage. However, Rome Statute and other provisions of court give little guidelines about the nature of "participation", details, conditions, and the way of its application to judges. Generality, vagueness, complexity and contradictory nature of the Rome Statute and other provisions of the court on the victims' participation, particularly about investigation, allow the prosecutors and judges to make decisions with a broad approach with the possibility of imposing personal preferences. The lack of consistency and coherent function and procedures of the court in victim participation, in more than a decade of its establishment, indicate an almost symbolic participation for the victims, regarding the irregular participation and enjoyment of correct, and adequate guidance and assistance.     *Corresponding Author’s E-mail: mohsenlalalizadeh@yahoo.com                         

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One of the most important necessities that victimology requires at least within criminal sciences is to create a general theory describing and explaining all concepts, theories and hypotheses which may be used in this scientific sphere. The present article seeks to introduce such a theory, using key terminologies formed the literature and content of victimology from beginning of its emergence since mid of the twentieth century. The new discipline of criminal sciences that I argue in this article has emerged in the light of two criminological and legal approaches. The work of the victimology theory is to incorporating these approaches into a unified field of study which is based upon three key concepts: active personality of victim, nature of victimhood/victimization and passivity of victim. In my final considerations, I conclude that the victimology theory can have virtues and advantages including in criminal etiology, preventing victimization and offending and overall formulating a better criminal policy and criminal justice system in practice.

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The victim's intervention in the proceeding and the hearing of the pain and injuries inflicted on them are considered influential factors while passing judgment on the accused under New Zealand criminal law. The victim is either injured because of the crime or has already been vulnerable for some reasons exuberates the situation. The New Zealand criminal system assesses type and offense-seriousness in both cases to pass sentence on the accused.  The present research aims to study the impact inflicted on rape victims in determining sentences. It is a descriptive, analytical study conducted using the content analysis technique. A purposive sample of 15 rape cases was selected from the New Zealand criminal system and coded using ATLAS software.  The results show that if the accused is found guilty of pre-planned raping by resorting to physical violence, making sense of humiliation and severe mental harm, or rape is committed against vulnerable victims, the court aggravates the culprit's punishment based on the extent of the harms inflicted on them. It can be in the form of an increases period of preventive imprisonment, rejection of the plea for mercy or conditional discharge, the traverse of revision, and the extension of therapeutic or rehabilitation courses or compelling the offender to join them.