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Choosing the active or passive constructions for the native speakers of a language, as the name suggests, is simply a "choice" and "selection" and the speaker uses one of these two voices to express the meaning according to his situation and recognition. This conscious choice between the two structures mentioned is not a problem as long as the speaker speaks his native language. The problem begins when a person wants to speak or write in another language and for his “choice”, among the data and training that he has received in a foreign language up to this point, he looks for a reason to choose the best option among two voices and not allow errors. This article tries to answer the question: how can students for whom Russian is not their native language consciously choose a passive construction? In other words, this article is not intended to compare the Voice in Persian and Russian or to observe students’ “mistakes” in encountering this category. The article is aimed at developing a questionnaire containing the “correct” options from among the types of quasi-passive, passive and active and implementing it for 86 students of the Russian language in Iran and Russia (for whom Russian is considered a non-native language) and, based on the analysis of their answers, to reflect them "trend" in the use of passive structure. From this point of view, we try to help Russian teachers in teaching the use of the passive voice.

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The reason or cause of doing something, in most cases, differs in Persian and Russian Language. These differences will be revealed when the reason is explained using prepositions. In Russian, the prepositions, in addition to position and purpose, have causal features that are very important when talking in Russian and translating from Persian into Russian. Further Iranian language learners become superficially familiar with them when learning the language but they (language learners) are not taught enough as they ought to be. In Russian language, a definitive preposition is used for expressing a special reason in a way that the other preposition can not be replaced with it. The meaning of nouns and verbs, which are used with causal prepositions and also the reason of creating that, are really important in finding the causal preposition and that's why Iranian language learners have trouble in expressing the reason. This article examines Iranian language learners' problems and tries to prove it based on evidence.

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Propositional characteristics can be expressed by infinitives in Russian language. So the sentence is one-word. Infinitives can express potential acts; so that they can express virtual or indirect meanings.  In a one-word sentence or a single-capacity structure, infinitive can have meanings like: mandatory agreement of speaker with audience and inevitability of an act with быть infinitive, disagreeability, a state or act done directly by a physical or mental perception, logical subject evaluating an action or a state, indispensability, etc. This article explains the mentioned meanings in the structure of infinitive one-word sentences and discusses the methods of expressing them in Persian language.        

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In the present article, after reviewing the classical typologies of focalization and considering discoursal markers of focalization identified by traditional narratologists, we will turn our attention to a kind of focalization which entails hypothesizing about what might have been perceived/conceived through a perspective never adopted by the focalizer; thus “hypothetical focalization”. For this kind of focalization to be described (ahead of any explanation), we need to apply some linguistic and philosophical insights gained either after, or out of, the ensemble of conventional narratology. The ideas specifically at issue here will be those first developed within the frameworks of the possible-worlds and intensional semantics. The due conceptual framework will serve to spotlight the intensional aspects (or the sense) of narrative well beyond the structural narratologists’ and logical semanticists’ formal accounts. Therefore, the present study not only will specify the most usual modes of verbal focalization in a number of Persian extracts, but will also examine some lesser known semantic dimensions of narrative discourse, drawing on those virtual aspects of focalization inherently refraining from the logical or formal investigations pertinent to structural narratology.

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Ali Hossein Najafi Abrand Abadi Associate Professor, Shahid Beheshti University Mohammad Jafar Habibzadeh Associate Professor, Department of Law, Tarbiat Modares University Abulfat'h Khaleghi Ph.D. Student of Criminal Law, Tarbiat Modares University The imprisonment (custodial sentences) is the most common and expensive sanction in the criminal law, which has enjoyed hardly any success on the treatment of the offenders due to the complexity of the prison administration. Reform in the prison administration and search for an appropriate alternatives for it, have long attracted the attention of the penologists, it has recently intensified with the appearance of community punishment theory. This theory was designed with the aim of sentencing without unnecessary intervention in the social and emotional relationships of offenders together with protection of public security and welfare. Home detention as a sample of community punishment has reduced incarceration rates and restricted nonviolent criminals and is more compatible with the humanitarian principles.

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Seyyed Ali Asghar Mousavi Rokni Assistant Professor, Ghom University This article is discussing methodology scholars' attitude in jurisprudence and divine law about how they can prove the crime and the act of sentence. In usual researching methods, these are followed in legal - penal subjects and its theological aspect is less considered, but within this article, while dividing the subject into sections, including "the quality of responsibility" and "the omission of responsibility and sentence" , the legislator's attitude toward real criminal and the quality of act or abolition of sentence has been discussed. The first section implies the precision of methodology as the jurist's thought supporter to recognize the real criminal, since the presupposition for attributing the title of criminal to someone, is being addressed by divine law and this fact occurs with in the discussion of the quality of responsibility. In the second section, the specific attention of the legislator toward the rights of criminal is discussed and considering the special conditions which the criminal faces, the question of reducing or abolishing of sentence from him or her arises, that means the same important question called "acquittance" and the importance of this matter is that the ignored rights of the oppressed people must also be regarded. Obviously, this article can not include all of the legal-theological discussions in this field, and only some parts of it has been dealt with.

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The proper translation of sentences from one language into the other is of utmost importance and, in order to accomplish this, the translator should not merely translate the words directly to the target language. Rather it is necessary to consider the concept of conditional sentences in the source language, then the closest structure that makes the same sense in the target language has to be chosen. This is important in translation of the conditional sentences of the Holy Quran into English, due to some differences in the structure of the two languages and the capacity of the target language, and it requires more precision from the translator. In this research, it has been tried to use the descriptive-analytical method to study the various conditional sentences forms in the Holy Qur'an and their exact equivalence in English. Then the most important mistake positions in translation of the conditional sentences of the Quran into English such as the attention to the time of the verbs, the concept of unrealness and unlikeness, the concept of requirement of if clause for the accomplishment of the main clause etc, is mentioned and eventually the function of five translations Arberry, Rodwell, Pickthal, Yusuf Ali and the Saheeh International is analyzed. One of the results of this research is the expression of specific priciples in the translation of Quranic conditional sentences, which improves the translations, and criticizm of the performance of the five translators in question.

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In this Paper we analyze the pronominal Clitics of Behbahani  -  a Dialect of Persian –  their function and their placement in the sentence. It is shown that pronominal Clitics of Behbahani have four functions, namely subject, direct or indirect object and possessive. Here, we show that subject Clitics have 15 functions in the sentence which is fully discussed in the paper. Direct object Clitics select the following elements as their hosts: the prefix of the imperative verb, the verb prefix in prefixed verbs, the non – verbal part of the compound verb, the prefix showing continuity, the verb and the negating prefix. The hosts of indirect object Clitics are the direct object and the continuity prefix. Possessive Clitics can also choose subject, direct object and the complement as their host. In terms of the grammatical category the host can be a verb, noun, adjective, personal pronoun, Demonstrative, ambiguous pronoun, Clitics, preposition, interrogative pronoun, plural suffix, and RA Ezafe marker in Persian. The dominant position of the Clitics in this dialect is the second position; known as wackernagel position – that is after the first word or the first constituent in the clause. The main point of difference and dissociation between Behbahani and Standard Persian is the subject Clitics; Since there are not such elements as subject Clitics in Standard Persian, but as is seen in the paper, Behbahani has a rich collection of these elements.

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A.Mirbagheri Fard,PH.D.
L.Mirmojarabian
 
Abstract
Savaneh al-Ashshaq of Ahmad Gazzali is the most outstanding and first spiritual and independent work that speaks about love in the Persian language. The language of this work is one of a particular mystic eloquence that often employs appropriate discourse from Qur’anic verses or Hadith. Meanwhile, linguistic principles have associated and adjusted two axis causing projection and distinction of the language. Elements of lingual accretion that has been analyzed and studied in the current paper is the most projecting factor of Savaneh with regard to its associating that has created balance and order in different layers of this book. Among these factors, more than others, author has paid attention to balance accrued from vocabulary repetition especially its defective repetition.
In this work, the frequent remarkable application of this lingual technique (vocabulary repetition) and was up and down in the text is a kind of internal resemblance that is being seen in the language of Ahmad Gazzali. As such, balance of Savaneh is more based on vocal resemblance which is not only the axis of lingual association rather in substitution too has led to the application of types of simile instead of metaphor.
 

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Abbasali  vafaie,PH.D.
Nasrin Seyedzadeh
 
Abstract
This article discusses about lingual adverbial subject with due attention to some of the grammatical views. For that matter, first, the paper presents various definitions about adverb and then it assesses the most comprehensive ones. Consequently, adverb and adverbial supplements studied and their place of emergence have been indicated with respect to verbal capacities. After the review of adverbial structure, conflicting views of grammarians about conjunction or connection of some of the lingual elements such as “in case”, “since”, “if” etc… studied and were rejected by presenting reasons of these elements being conjunctive.
 

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This paper sets out to investigate the feasibility of replacement of restrictive and non-restrictive relative clauses at discourse level in Persian. Givon (2001) believes that proper names, pronouns and unique definite nouns cannot be modified by restrictive relatives. On the other hand, it is usually stated that the modification of indefinite nouns by non-restrictive relatives would result in ungrammatical sentences. This study, however, provides examples from the Persian language arguing against such propositions. Furthermore, there are also evidences in Persian showing that the emotive and expositive information, which are usually expressed by non-restrictive relatives, may also be expressed by restrictive relative clauses. The main inquiry will, then, be how such discourse possibilities would be accounted. To this end, the current paper aims to study and analyze the above-mentioned discourse situations within Discourse Grammar (DG) framework, as introduced by Heine and et al (2013). For the analysis, the empirical data are gathered from the different spoken and written sources in Persian as well as some other instances based on the authors’ own observations and their intuitions.
In short, on the basis of Discourse Grammar, this paper argues that the discourse situations allowing such possibilities can be explained in terms of Cooptation mechanism, an important notion in Discourse Grammar which explain the interaction between sentence grammar and thetical grammar. Furthermore, unlike Heine and et al (2013), it is shown that Cooptation may be a bidirectional operation. In a sense, the paper provides some examples and explanation for the non-unidirectionality of cooptation mechanism such as appositive phrases and Ezafe constructions in Persian.

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Folk literature, or oral literature, is the forerunner of the written literature. Its orators were pure and reliable people who were not much literature. These folklores stayed with us through their transfer between generations. Part of the folk and oral literature is the "wedding songs" labelled differently in various parts of the country. In Fasa county, this type of literature is known as "Astunk or Wastunak". The present article examines the syntactic structure of this type of oral literature in terms of the type and components of the sentences in popular culture. To this aim, through field study and interview with older and preferably illiterate women, 127 Wastunaks from the folk culture of Fasa were collected and transcribed. They were, then, analyzed syntactically (type and components of the sentence). The data was fed into SPSS 25. The results show that the frequency of the simple sentences is more than the compound ones and in most compound sentences, the subordinates are omitted for the rhythm of the poems. Finally, the three-part and four-part sentences had the highest and lowest frequencies in the Wastunak, respectively.

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Conditional sentence is a compound sentence consisting of two clauses: protasis and apodosis. The purpose of this paper is investigating the conditional sentences in contemporary Persian language based on the Declerck and Reed typology (2001). According to this semantic typology, possible world of protasis is divided in to two factual and theoretical classes. Theoretical possible world can be neutral or nonneutral and the nonneutral is divided in to four types: closed, open, tentative and counterfactual. In the present study, we try to examine these types with respect to the corpus of 286 conditional sentences extracted from ten contemporary story books and the frequency of occurrence of each one to be determined separately. The analysis of Persian conditional sentences shows that the Persian conditional construction is compatible with mentioned typology and open possible world has the highest occurrence frequency, and the neutral, closed, factual, tentative and counterfactual possible worlds respectively dedicated the highest frequency of the open possible world. The higher frequency of occurrence of the open possible world arises from the fact that in this possible world a probabilistic situation is considered and there is no certainty about its occurrence and this interpretation is most consistent with the operation of the conditional construction. This study also shows that in addition to the common conditional conjunctions such as “ agar, be shartike, vaella, vagarna, ...” other conjunctions are also used as conditional conjunctions like : “ valo, farzan, hamin ke, be mojarade inke, vaghti, cheo…che, hala ke, ta, ke ….” .

 
 

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A final and definite se... tence is valid only in the case of a finished event. The principle is that is should be real. However sentences are sometimes issued wrongly which is not in the interest of justice. This is why revision has been considered in legal procedures as a complementary means for the elimination of mistake. This article aims to clarify the principles of revision and to jurtappose them with other external regulations and rules. The purpose best practices based on practical and scientific applications of revision principles there are only five articles on legal revision leaving many regulations untouched which the present article will try to unfold.

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This article aims to investigate the language of ‘May’ and has presented a stylistic study of Shepard’s Fool for Love (1983). To do the study, the writers of this article have benefited from ‘Level of the Word’, ‘Level of the Phrase/Sentence’ and ‘Level of Discourse’ presented by Sara mills. Using Mills’ ideas, the problem suggested in this article is to show whether ‘May’ is a powerful character or not. The purpose of this article is to compare and contrast the character of ‘May’ with the male characters of the play, and answer the following: Is she always obeying male characters of the play? And according to critics, has Shepard presented a weak female character in the play? The findings of the study show that ‘May’ has a submissive character and cannot affect others around her. She is also weaker than the male characters of the play.
Methodology
Mills (1995) identifies three levels of analysis, the first of which is analysis at the level of the word (p. 62); at this level she identifies various methods that sexism is found in language, and they are as follows:
Linguistic Determinism
Generic Pronouns
Generic Nouns 
Women as the Marked Form
(pp. 62-70)
Mills (1995) then goes on to discuss “Sexism and Meaning”, raising questions about the way in which meanings may be sex-specific; she discusses some problematic areas, namely:
Naming and Androcentrism
The Semantic Derogation of Women
Endearments and Diminutives
Female Experience: Euphemism and Taboo
Lexical Gaps: Male Point of View
Dictionaries and Gatekeepers
(pp. 77-94)
       The second level of analysis which Mills (1995) proposes is analysis at the level of the phrase/sentence; she expands by suggesting areas that require particular attention in an analysis, said areas being:
Ready-made Phrases
Presupposition and Inference
Metaphor
Jokes and Humour
Transitivity Choices
(pp. 98-110)
Regarding transitivity, Mills (1995) states that it has to do with the “representation of who acts (who is an agent) and who is acted upon (who is affected by the actions of others)”; she goes on to explain that there are three types of choices: “material, mental and relational” (p. 110). Mills (1995) elaborates further:
In this system, processes can be categorized into those elements which are actions which can be observed in the real world and which have consequences (material), for example, ‘She swam across the river’; those which take place largely in the mind (mental), for example, ‘She thought about the situation’; and those which simply relate two elements together (relational), for example, ‘It is rather cold’. Within material action processes, there are two further choices, between ‘material action intention’ and ‘material action supervention’: with material action intention, there is a clear will to do something, for example, ‘I broke the window, in order to get into the house’; but with supervention, there is an attempt to capture for analysis those verbal processes where things are not done intentionally, for example, ‘I broke my favourite glasses’. (pp. 110-111)
As has become clear, transitivity allows for investigation into whether a character is active or passive, and also whether a character manages to have an effect on her surroundings and other characters.
       The final level of analysis Mills (1995) observes is the level of discourse; she indicates a few areas for analysis at this level which consist of:
Characters/Roles
Fragmentation
Focalization
Schemata
(pp. 123-148).
Conclusion
From the very beginning of the play, Eddie is shown as the active character while May remains the passive one. Also, inferences were made that May cannot provide for herself, coupled with the fact that May is the goal of Eddie’s material-action-intention act, shows that May is the powerless passive goal whereas Eddie is the powerful active agent. Even when May makes Eddie the goal of her act, Eddie is simultaneously doing the same, and the difference is that May is physically subordinated as well. In excerpt 2, Eddie’s belief that May needs someone to check up on her, suggests that May cannot take care of herself, and as such she is viewed as powerless and inferior. The aforementioned presupposition is indicative of an anti-feminist viewpoint in the play. Eddie proceeds by using a material-action-intention act whereas May uses an internal mental process, and said processes point to Eddie being powerful and active while May is powerless and passive.
Excerpt 3 begins with Eddie using a “ready-made phrase” to indicate that because May has aged, she should not be dating, and this is a negative view designed to damage May’s perception of herself to make her believe she is not attractive. Eddie goes on to threaten May with material-action-intention acts, which show May’s subordination and powerlessness. Therefore, the exchanges between Eddie and May are dominated by the former, and this suggests the subordination of femininity. In the fourth excerpt, May uses a relational process which suggests that she is a passive character; the fact that said relational process is used to hide her date from Eddie, further supports her passivity and powerlessness. May’s identity is also brought into question because she does not influence Eddie, and simply reacts to his words and action not being able to instigate anything

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The controversy over the role of reason, like other subjects of human knowledge, has gone through many ups and downs. In "wisdom in syntax" we seek a phenomenological view of "syntax" and knowledge of how it manifests itself to others, while in "syntax of wisdom" we seek to know what linguistic reason expects from us. In their contemporary approach to grammar, Western linguists have analyzed sentence structures from three "transformational-generative", "functional", and "cognitive" approaches, based on which we have tried to delve into the place of reason in Arabic grammar. This study is an attempt to find out whether the analysis power of reason should be called on from somewhere else or it is innate to the Arabic language. Linguistic features such as "declinable vs. indeclinable", "probability vs. certainty", "diacritics", "forms and morphs", and categories such as "agent and theme" and "semanticism" are all justified by "reason", without which they have nothing to say! Besides, community, speakers and addressees do not have a haphazard or mechanical relationship with the structure and form of sentences; rather, sentence structure rules and various forms are closely related to the elements that make up a verbal communication. It is certainly the power of reason that deciphers the relationship between sentence structure and extralinguistic factors. Accordingly, the power of reason causes morpho-syntax to adopt an analytical and argumentative state rather than a merely descriptive one.

1. Introduction
Linguists have considered the extent of the influence of reason in linguistic studies. In this article, we try to understand with the library method:
What does syntax expect from us? What is the function of reason (here linguistic reason) in sentence construction and how does it affect it? What is meant by reason? Is it an inherent or in-born feature for humans, or just an acquired power? In this paper, we seek to show that morpho-syntax is to be considered an analytical rather than a descriptive tool, which clarifies any obscurity regarding sentence construction, differences in sentence arrangement and intentions behind sentence structures. With this approach, we have sought to determine the relationship between reason and syntax, clarify "syntax reason", and specify what "syntax" and in general Arabic grammar expects from its speakers and how syntax manifests itself to the audience. Meanwhile, we also try to delve into "reason syntax" and determine what "reason" seeks in language and grammar as well as the characteristics of linguistic reason in Arabic grammar.
The research hypothesis is that morpho-syntax is an analytical tool and even if it happens to be considered a descriptive tool, it finally expects its speakers to go through analysis and reflection. Yet, the rationality that accompanies and helps the speakers in this regard is not innate and has to be acquired in appropriate ways. The important point here is that this rationality is rule-governed and framework- and criterion-based.
 
2.Literature Review
The reason-syntax relationship has gone through three stages in recent Western studies, namely the transformational-generative approach, the functional approach and the cognitive approach. Reflection on these three approaches in Arabic grammar will help us answer the main question of the research: what is the relationship between reason and syntax in Arabic grammar?
The Westerns' classical view of language, which originated in Aristotle's view, was based on a rational approach. However, it was changed in the Age of Enlightenment and replaced by a historical approach. It was in the second half of the twentieth century that Chomsky's theories revived the rationalist approach. However, as the role of extralinguistic features such as context had been overlooked in the transformational-generative approach, it was criticized by Halliday, who developed functionalism based on his view of language as a social phenomenon. In this approach, language is considered an organism whose elements and components must be chosen consciously, and utterances are considered to be context- and addressee-tailored.
In 1987, Lakoff and Lankager emphasized the neglected role of mind processing. They developed the theory of cognitive linguistics to address the role of mind in information processing and conceptualization or its mediating role and effect on sentence construction. The place of an analyzing power that can provide an appropriate feedback based on its received information is evident in all of these approaches.
 
3.Methodology
Rationalism and the power of reason have a paramount position and bold role in Arabic grammar. Prior to Chomsky, Muslim syntacticians believed in the surface and deep structures of sentences. The generative approach, which is based on changes in the surface structure of sentences and production of similar sentences, has manifested itself in Arabic grammar in the form of phenomena such as "declinable vs. indeclinable", "probability vs. certainty", "forms and morphs", "diacritics", "semanticism" and "agent" vs. "theme". These phenomena are innate to the structure of the Arabic language and do not have an external source. The relationship of sentences and their formation with their meaning is inseparable, and words are put together in syntagmatic and paradigmatic systems because they have been called agent and theme in the grammar. The diacritical marks at the end of words carry meaning and any change in these marks leads to a change in the meaning of the words. The form, structure and pitch pattern of words show their inner content. Behind these changes and transformations in sentences is a rational and creative power that can analyze the changes!
Besides, the rules or sentence construction techniques are directly associated with the extra-linguistic context. Understanding these linguistic constructs requires rational and analytical power, since the differences between these techniques are related to the differences between audiences and extra-linguistic contexts as well as to the characteristics of speakers. Obviously, understanding these differences involves analyzing and examining the factors affecting sentence formation in a specific way.
Regarding the role of the mind in the production of sentence structures, Abdul Qaher says: "Arranging words in a sentence is the only way to show what is going on in one's mind."
The arrangement of words and their positions in utterances reflect their arrangement in the mind of the speaker (Abdul Qaher: 111-112). The advantage of one sentence over another relates to the thought behind it which is manifested in its form. In other words, the form of a sentence is the outcome of a process that has already passed through the mind. The superficial (sensory) utterances that are produced (spoken or written) are based on the inner propositions that exist in the mind of the speaker. It is his mind that arranges the words in different positions and lengthens some words while shortening some others. Any knowledge of the reasons for these arrangements involves knowing about the mind of the speaker, which is the result of experience, life, events, studies, upbringing, feelings, emotions and in general, everything that can affect one's development and creation of this epistemological treasure. The mysteries of sentences will not be manifested unless the doors of this treasure are opened to the analyst!
 
 
Conclusion

1. Reason is not a tool to be called on from outside. The Arabic language has such a nature that, without reason, it does not work and is not understood as it should be!
2. Linguistic reason is framework-based and rule-governed. The structure of the Arabic language does not accept every utterance, analysis and expression.
3. The main structure of a language does not change over time; it is only the analyses and interpretations of the language structure, constructs and elements that undergo changes.

Muslim syntacticians had rightly realized from the beginning that studying Arabic grammar requires considering the underlying structures of sentences and accepting the two levels of surface and deep structures. In this regard, they did not overlook the communication components and elements including the receiver, sender and context, and were well aware of the influence of these factors in the construction and formation of sentences. They also considered the effect of the mind, its processing power as well as its role in the arrangement of sentences

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The problem of the hermeneutical circle is one of the contentious issues in philosophical hermeneutics. This paper, begins with focusing on the question as to whether what hermeneuts mean by a hermeneutical circle is in fact a real circle with no analogical sense involved. Recognizing that this problem is not confined to the relation between part and whole, this study confines itself to explore the problem of the hermeneutical circle with regard to the circularity between part and whole in a sentence. I will argue that, as far as the interdependence between part and whole of a sentence is concerned, there is no real circularity between them. This will be followed by scrutinizing the source of such a misunderstanding, i.e., the circular interdependence between understanding the part and the whole of a sentence. I will present my analysis through a critical reading of two contemporary hermeneuts, Eric Donald Hirsch and Graeme Nicholson, even though both are on the right track in questioning the existence of such a circle in the first place. The argument presented could apply to contexts well beyond that of the circularity between part and whole in a sentence.

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 Deferred sentence, as a form of community punishment, is an aspect of participatory crime policy and crime control according to which a sentence will not be carried out if the convicted criminal meets certain requirements, such as complying with the conditions of probation. The finality of deferred sentence order depends on whether the court satisfies to comply with the requirements by the criminal or not, which may result to the sentence or punishment. The present article explores the provisions of deferred sentence in the Islamic Penal Code of Iran in the light of a comparative approach to three European legal systems (French, England and Germany) to find similarities and differences between the provisions in question. The article concludes that all provisions in Iran and the mentioned countries seek to meet the necessities of rehabilitative and reparative purposes of criminal sanctions for both offenders and victims.