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The issue of polysemy has been considered within cognitive approach by Iranian linguists in recent years. That’s because the authors  have  analyzed the  simple form of the verb  /čijən/ (i.e., going) in  kalhori /kermanshaian Kurdish based on principled–polysemy approach proposed by Evans & Green  in 2006. In this qualitative study, the data were collected through Kurdish speakers’ daily conversation and analyzed based on the mentioned approach in a descriptive-analytic way. Also, the authors used Kurdish speakers and their own linguistic intuition to approve the authenticity of the data. The results showed that the prototypical meaning of this verb was “GO” that has forty-five distinct meanings, such as “travel”, “drive”, “migrate”, “flow”, “set”, “finish”, “charge”, “send'', etc. in its own semantic clusters including six distinct semantic clusters. Finally, these forty-five distinct meanings along with their six semantic clusters were illustrated in a semantic network. Also, the findings showed that a favorable explanation of the polysemy of this verb in Kalhori Kurdish can be obtained based on the mentioned approach. The polysemy representation of this verb in Kalhori Kurdish can be useful for a better understanding of the polysemy of other verbs in Kurdish.
 

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In cognitive semantics, a polysemous word constitutes a semantic concept, and the various meanings of that word assign themselves to radial network members of that concept. Accordingly, this study investigates the polysemy of the prefix "/pas-/" based on a cognitive semantic approach. The nature of this qualitative research is descriptive-analytical, and data have been extracted from Persian-language resources, namely Dehkhoda Dictionary (1994), Moein Dictionary (2003), and Amid Dictionary (2010), using a library research method. In this study, the two criteria of Tylor and Evans (2003), namely the prototypical fixed meaning or historically evidenced meaning and salience and prominence in the semantic network, have been employed to determine the primary or prototype meaning of Persian language prefixes. The authors aim to demonstrate that the prefix "/pas-/" is a polysemous prefix with a spectrum of lexical functions. This prefix, given its usage in Persian, has different semantic clusters such as "after, before, in front, back, and behind," which have expanded from a prototype or primary meaning. The findings indicated that the prefix "/pas-/" attaches to diverse textual foundations and generates newly derived words such as "pas-farda (the day after tomorrow), pas-pariirooz (the day before yesterday), pas-andaz (savings), pas-larze (aftershock)," and the like. It is observed that the prefix "/pas-/" possesses an extensive radial network due to the combination of this prefix with various verbs.

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Abstract: This paper investigates the polysemy of the Persian word /širin/ from the perspective of cognitive sociolinguistics. It starts with introducing the principles of cognitive sociolinguistics, then investigates the polysemy of the Persian adjective /širin/ within the framework introduced by Robinson (2010), (2012a), (2012b), and (2014), to show that polysemy cannot be reduced to a static state, one and the same for all speakers of the language. In fact, social variables like age and gender affect the way people perceive different senses of the polysemous word. The data is gathered using documentary and field method(library research, interviews, and questionnaires). The research method employed is mixed(quantitative and qualitative). The statistical population is all monolingual Persian speakers living in Tehran, and the sample includes 200 subjects, 100 male and 100 females, in four different age groups of under 18, between 18 and 30, between 30 and 60, and above 60 years old. The results show that different senses of the polysemous word do not have the same distribution among different speakers, both male and female, belonging to different age groups, and are not accidental but explainable in terms of gender and age of the speakers. The results also indicate that cognitive sociolinguistics is more adequate in giving more exact explanations concerning meaning variation in polysemous words and the effect of social variables of age and gender on the number and salience of each sense.

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The language of Qur'an is a multi-layer and faceted one which is considered as one of its marvels. Based on some quotes, the Holy Qur'an encompasses seven and on some other, seventy layers of meaning. This has long derived the Qur'an scholars and investigators to strive to figure out these layers of meaning. Multiple meaning words carry with them more than one meaning and since there is always the possibility of the presence of multiple meanings in a single context, due attention and care plays a significant role in figuring out the right meaning and message of Qur'anic verses and correctly translating them. Following a descriptive-analytical methodology, this study investigated the translation of some multiple meaning words. This implies the incongruences in picking up the Farsi equivalent of the same word by different translators. Taking the semantic and pragmatic context of the verses into account, considering the etymological aspects of the words and analyzing interpretative texts are among the most important solutions to the translation of multiple- meaning words.    

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The closed texts are among the texts being definitive in meaning and lucid in language. In other words they are monophonic and so, easy to understand. On the contrary, the open texts are polyphonic suggesting a possibility of different interpretations. Meanwhile, their language is implicit and ambiguous.
The hypothesis of the present article is that in the 8th century the open texts were developed widely in the Persian literature and for the very reason the poetry of the time is so brilliant tending to a kind of perfection in its lyrical form (Ghazal). The elements and factors involved in creating the open texts such as polysemicity, plurality, conciseness, making use of the original and everlasting subject matters, as well as taking advantage of the capacities of Persian language are discussed to be the origin of ambiguity, holistic point of view and the creating a possibility for these literary figures involved in polysemy of the text.
 

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Blind Owl is one of the most famous stories of contemporary Persian literature and criticism so far as it has many potential meanings .Despite various disagreements and numerous commentators and critics of The Blind Owl, it can say that all of them agree with this belive that two part of Blind Owl are repeated each other. Moreover, it is said about the vast majority of these explanations with use of psychological critics paid to analysis of this text. While the authors have tried with regard to the above two point whit analysis of conceptual metaphors that used in two parts Through "conceptual metaphor theory" beyond of psychological reasoning of that critics this text have had To discover similarities and differences between the two parts, finally to achive a newer and different view from those mentioned so far and Prove that despite the many similarities in the two-part application, Hedayat has been followed different insights in each part.

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During recent decades, Persian complex predicates have been described by many grammarians and linguists with different approaches to their syntax, morphology, and, in less extent, to their semantics. Despite the extensive literature about the subject, cognitive semantic analysis of these predicates has not yet been the matter of analysis. This paper aims at examining the polysemous feature of the light verb zadan based on cognitive lexical semantics. It seeks to show that this feature of the light verb zadan based on the meanings of its corresponding heavy verb is a systematic phenomenon and cognitive concepts such as categorization, radial category, image schemas and conceptual metaphor play a major role in the formation of different meanings of this linguistic element in the form of a radial category. As well, the meaning of light verb is a determining factor in collocation between light verb and preverbal elements in light verb constructions.

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The present research explores the “wæl”, “tɑ” and “ærɑ” prepositions in Gurani Kurdish within the framework of cognitive semantics. One of the recent models in semantic analysis of prepositions is Principled polysemy model (Tyler & Evans, 2001, 2003; Evans & Tyler, 2004a, 2004b; Evans, 2004, 2005, 2006) that suggests explicit and applicable criteria for determining the distinct senses as well as the primary sense of prepositions. We aim to analyze the semantics of three mentioned prepositions, to determine their distinct senses and primary sense, and to represent their semantic networks. The results suggest that the primary sense of “wæl” is “companionship” and its semantic network contains 9 distinct senses and 2 clusters of senses. The primary sense of “tɑ” is “ending” and its semantic network contains 4 distinct senses and 1 cluster of senses. The primary sense of “ærɑ” is “for and sake” and its semantic network contains 4 distinct senses and 1 cluster of senses.

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The current paper focuses on polysemy of one highly flexible spatial term in Persian, namely "zir", from the Principled Polysemy Model perspective. The studied applications of "zir" are mostly taken from 'Farhang-e Sokhan-e Anvari' and the Principled Polysemy Model has served as the analytical tool. Besides discussing the semantic aspects of spatial "zir", the study aims to investigate the applicability and efficiency of Principled Polysemy model in semantic analysis this specific term. In fact, we seek to know what strong or weak points the principled polysemy framework shows regarding primary sense specification and distinct senses discrimination. After the model's application on uses of "zir", its primary spatial sense was specified and next, four distinct extended senses were determined and  all of them  constituted the semantic network of "zir". The results of its semantic analysis within principled polysemy framework confirmed this model's two points of advantage compared to some other leading cognitive investigations especially Lakoff (1987); one in determining the primary sense due to considering certain linguistic criteria in the procedure, and the other in restricting the number of distinct senses by adopting a moderate view towards polysemy. However, the semantic analysis of "zir" in the adopted framework faced some challenges too, among which two more significant issues included the psychological reality of distinct senses and their high level of context-dependency.
 

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The purpose of the present research is to analyze one of the most frequently used derivational suffixes in Persian, namely “-i“, and to examine its various structural and semantic/functional aspects. The study adopts a construction-based approach and, using a descriptive-analytical method, tries to explain the word formation patterns using the notions of “construction” and “constructional schemas” within the framework of Construction Morphology (Booij, 2010, 2015). It then represents the hierarchical and network relationships among constructional schemas and subschemas in a systematic way. The data under study are extracted from the authors own morphological corpus which includes more than 8000 derivational and compound words as well as Farhang-e Bozorg-e Sokhan (The Great Sokhan Dictionary) (Anvari, 2002). The findings of the research show that “-i” has 38 different meanings/functions and thus we can consider this affix an extremely polysemous one which is always susceptible to new meanings/functions. This polysemy is not explainable at the level of words but at the level of abstract schemas, and therefore is called “constructional polysemy”. In other words, Construction Morphology theory brings us to a new conception of polysemy: a hierarchical and multi-level polysemy at the level of abstract constructions of language.

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Aim of the Research: Looking at the attitude of semantics, the present study aims to investigate some of the most practical prepositions, such as /læ/­, /wæ/, /­wægærd / and /­wæpi­/ in Kalhori Kurdish within principled-polysemy approach (Evans & Tyler, 2004a, 2004b; Evans & Green, 2006).
The Methodology of the Research: The nature of the method of this study is analytic-descriptive and its type is corpus-based. The Selected corpus has been obtained from interviews with the speakers of this dialect from Kurdish language, and their originality have been approved completely that  this study has focused on some samples for each distinct meaning due to the limitaition of its pages.
Research Question: This research has done to explore and determine the distinct meanings of the prepositions /læ/­, /wæ/, /­wægærd / and /­wæpi­/ in Kalhori Kurdish within principled-polysemy approach. Thus, the author has represented them in a semantic network seperately.
Research Results:  In this regard, the research results show that the prototypical meaning of the preposition /læ/ coming to the speakers' mind immediately is "from" having eighteen distinct meanings and five semantic clusters, such as; "contrast cluster", "collocation cluster", "polysemy cluster", "time-space cluster", and "metaphoric cluster" in its own semantic network. with conducted careful studies, it was found that, in some cases, Kalhori speakers use the preposition /læ/ in the place of /wæ/ in those contexts with those meanings interchangeably, but in addition to these meanings the preposition /wæ/ is used in two other different meanings, i.e; the meanings "by" and "to", in which the preposition /læ/ can't be used.  So, /wæ/ has twenty one distinct meanings. The prototypical meaning of the preposition /wægærd/ is "with" having eleven distinct meanings and three semantic clusters, such as; "collocation cluster", "contrast cluster" and "metaphoric cluster" in its own semantic network. The prototypical meaning of the preposition /wæpi/ is "to" having five distinct meanings and two semantic clusters, such as; "contrastive cluster" and the meaning "about" in its own semantic network.
 

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Polysemy is one of the most important, and traditional area in the semantic and lexical relations studies. Polysemy is a lexeme or word which has several meanings which are all somehow related. Regarding distinctive features of the words which are seen as polysemy cases, the study of these concepts and meanings specifically, and lexical relations in general is in the focus of the two recent decades researches in the cognitive linguistics, and also for psycholinguistics. We could find a rather rich literature in the study of polysemy in the field of lexical semantic and also cognitive semantics. In the traditional lexical semantics, collocation and the adjacent words are very important to add to the meaning of a word. In cognitive semantics, different concepts of an expression is connected to a central or proto typical concept in a network like connections which represents the fact that one concept is central, and the rest are non-central or secondary but related somehow to this primary meaning or concept. Indeed, the metaphorical extensions have no place among the actual concepts of a word. Polysemy could not include the figurative meanings of a word. Polysemy typically is a matter of nonfigurative and lexical meaning. In Persian, it has been always a tendency toward semantics and the lexical relations surveys. This tendency reveals the subject as a demanding area. In this descriptive and analytic paper, the types of polysemy of Persian with a cognitive approach, and classification of Evans' study will be considered, and discussed with the examples to testify if this classification will also be applicable to Persian or not. Evans suggests that polysemy might be one of the three kinds of conceptual, lexical and inter-lexical. What is important in Evan's approach is the semantic components of a word which could be activated in the relevant contexts, and this activation may represents some kind of conceptual polysemy. What is traditionally considered as polysemy is mostly treated as lexical polysemy in Evan's study. Conceptual polysemy with regards to the features as size, color, shape etc. of a single concept, and different activations of these features proposes a new look at the polysemy. In lexical polysemy, one meaning is central or primary from which other meanings emerge in a radial manner. Most of the polysemy cases in a language could be found as a lexical polysemy in Evan's terms. Different categories in language including nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs represent polysemy. Inter-lexical polysemy includes the possible polysemy relations between two words with different usages. A cognitive approach as Evan's consider polysemy in a language  is based on a primary or central concept, selection and activation of some features of a concept, the effect of context, mental and cognitive accessibility of the speakers to a definite cognitive pattern to come to a specific interpretation. A point worth to mention here is that regarding polysemy, a word might have a figurative or metaphorical meaning in a context which is not often mentioned among the meanings in a lexical entry. This meaning is totally context- based. Polysemy is not mainly related to a special context but it is the second or third or even more actual, and inherent meaning of a word and it could be found in a dictionary. Although context plays an important role for the selection of the right meaning, metaphorical meaning is a selection which is dependent on the paradigmatic relations due to some conceptual similarities. However, this metaphorical meaning is not part of the central meaning and as a result the polysemy. This paper, with the identification of these types of polysemy in Persian,  is to analyze, and evaluates a semantic subject with a cognitive approach.With evidences presented in this paper from Persian ,Evans' approach is proved to be useful for and applicable to the polysemy analysis in Persian, and more it represents a different, and innovative method for studying polysemy.
 
 

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In this paper, the authors deal with polysemy of a Persian suffix, –gar, its development, and some non-compositional aspects of meanings of the words derived from it. –gar is a productive agentive suffix in Persian deriving deverbal/denominal agent nouns and adjectives. The polysemous derived agent nouns are categorized as human agent nouns, human agent nouns denoting an occupation and non-human agent nouns (instruments). We investigate this polysemy in the framework of Construction Morphology (Booij, 2010). Construction Morphology provides a framework for proper account of word formation processes, in particular derivation, by employing a lexeme-based approach and by considering some morphological schemas/constructions in word formation.
Present analysis is based on a data set extracted from diachronic and synchronic corpora. First, a collection of 124 words derived from –gar was extracted from two dictionaries of Sokhan and Zansou (a Persian reveres dictionary) as well as from Persian Linguistic Database (PLDB). Present work also takes into account a diachronic perspective by searching the collected non-human agent nouns (instruments) in the diachronic corpus of Farhanyar, which contains literary works spanning from 9th century up to the present century and is the only diachronic corpus in Persian. The collected nouns were subsequently assigned to different categories of general human agents, human agents denoting a job, and non-human agents (instruments) based on their semantic variations. Meaning of ‘human agent of a regular and distinguished action related to the meaning of the base’ was assigned to [x-gar] construction as a prototypical meaning and a starting point for the ramification. The authors propose here that the development of instrument sub-schema- as a recent development in function of gar- is due to the influence of English loan words derived from –er. It seems that the mechanism behind this development is approximation i.e. the metaphoric extension at patterns level and not at the words level. The authors also argue that words with meanings of job and non-job agentive nouns are derived from two independent sub-schemas

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The present research aims at investigating the polysemy of the conjunctions "Ɂæma" and "væli" in persian language based on principled­–­polysemy approach (Evans & Green, 2006).The methodology used in this qualitative research is descriptive­-analytic, and its type is corpus-based. the selected corpus has been obtained from interviewing with Persian speakers, newspapers and Persian grammarians books, analyzed by using cognitive approach, and their originality have been approved completely. It's worth mentioning that the authors have limited only a few samples of each meaning for distinct meanings of these two conjunctions, and each one has been drawn into a semantic network separately. This study has been done to explore and determine the distinct meanings of the conjunctions "Ɂæma" and "væli" in Persian language within principled-polysemy approach. Thus, the author has represented them in a semantic network separately. In this regard, the research results showed that the prototypical meaning of the conjunction /Ɂæma/ coming to the speaker's mind immediately /væli/ has fourteen distinct meanings and two semantic clusters in its own semantic network. Also, the prototypical meaning of the conjunction /vali/ is /Ɂæma/ having eight distinct meanings and two semantic clusters in its own semantic network.
 

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The movement of  “Cognitive Semantics” appears against the independence of the syntax from lexical domain and calls into question the semantics being peripheral as it is mentioned in Chomsky's (1982) “Generative theory”. In this regard, Fillmore's (1982) “Frame Semantics theory” is one of the major achievements of cognitive semantics. In this theory Fillmore states that understanding the meanings of words is possible through frames that each word calls for. He also maintains that “Semantic Frames” display sections of an event used for connecting a group of words to a set of meanings and the meanings of words are perceived within a system of knowledge arising from the human's social and cultural experience. In fact, the difference between Frame Semantics with other lexico semantic hypotheses is its emphasis on the background knowledge based on which the meaning of words can be interpreted (Fillmore & Atkins, 1992, 1994, 2000; Fillmore & Baker, 2010). Also, the “FrameNet Project” is a Corpus-based study based on Fillmore's theory (Fillmore, et al., 2003). It is a lexicographic research project housed and administered at the International Computer Science Institute in Berkeley, California.  In this system, the meaning of words can be understood on the basis of semantic frames that are mental concepts. On the other hand, verbs are present as the most important element in most of the situations of an event and play significant role in the interpretation of the meaning; thus, working on it is a useful idea.
        The purpose of this study is to present a quantitative and corpus-based analysis in order to recognize the semantic domains and frames of the verb “Goftan” (to Tell) in Persian and sketch its main frame within the framework of Frame Semantics theory and the fact-finding model of FrameNet lexicography. In fact, it attempts to investigate what Fillmore and his colleagues did in English FrameNet and others in different languages as well as in the domain of Frame Semantics to be considered in Persian too. So, the main questions of this study are:

• What are the semantic domains and frames of the verb “Goftan” (to Tell) in Persian based on the major concepts of Frame Semantics theory and FrameNet?
•  Is it possible to design the main semantic frame of the verb “Goftan” (to Tell) in Persian?

To answer these questions, the authors investigate the background of studies and introduce Frame semantics theory and FrameNet lexicography. Then, they tried to be familiar with the verb “Goftan” and it’s frequency in Persian based on Persian Language Database (PLDB). To this end, 44 semantic domains and frames of the verb “Goftan” were recognized using encyclopedias, Persian contemporary corpora and FrameNet database. Then, the concept of “bar zabân Ɂâvardan va bayân kardan” (to express) was determined as the main meaning and prototype of this verb and for the first time its “Radial category” the authors sketched. Finally, the main frame of “Goftan” was created using principles and concepts proposed in Fillmore's Frame Semantics theory

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Present paper is a theoretical research in the field of semantics based on componential analysis of meaning with a diachronic approach. Lexical forms and semantic roles of “ba” have been cited and analyzed from historical sources and books of grammar and also from Sokhan Persian dictionary to be analyzed diachronically within the frame work of structural semantics.
One of the problems investigated in this research is proving polysemy of “ba” with regard to diachronic and synchronic semantic clues. The other investigated problem is justification of the mentioned preposition’s grammaticalization on the basis of its polysemy. The preposition “ba” is the remainder of upāka- from old Persian. upāka- has meant “near, beside” in Sanskrit and has had the semantic component [accompany]. In middle Persian this word has turned into abāg which had prepositional function and with addition of a suffix it had become a noun; abāgīh meant “accompaniment”. Through suffixation it also became verb, meant “to accompany”. In this article polysemy of “ba” has been studied based on its main meaning found via historical view over its semantic behavior and conceptual transmission model.
Questions which the authors have intended to answer are: 1. What was the primary meaning of “ba”? 2.  How and in how many steps has this word been grammaticalized? 3. Which meanings of this word have been derived from its primary meaning? and 4. Which semantic component relates different meanings of “ba” together?  
Investigations have showed in the process of Persian change, this preposition has passed through two processes of grammaticalization: first, a noun has become a preposition with the meaning of “accompaniment” and second, in the next step it has found other semantic functions; namely “source” and other related meanings. So, in the first step, the preposition has undergone primary grammaticalization and in the next step it has undergone secondary grammaticalization. The authors have recognized sixteen meanings for “ba” and have put these meanings into two groups. The first group contain meanings derived from “accompaniment” which show “person” conceptualization on Heine’s scalar about categorization metaphors. The second group of meanings are those which are the result of secondary grammaticalization of “ba” which are help, instrument, substance, manner, agency, comparison, opposition, and exchange. These show “thing”, “activity” and “process” conceptualized metaphors on Heine’s scalar have been made by Persian speakers.
 

 

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Teaching French translation in Iran has been studied from different angles so far and its flaws and the problems encountered by students in this field have been repeatedly evaluated. However, it seems that researchers in Iran have not taken into account the problem of polysemic words and the translation of this ambiguous phenomenon. Hence, we have decided to study this phenomenon in university classes where students are trained to translate texts from French language to Persian.
In this regard, considering the characteristics of the polysemic words and the ability of French translation students to recognize and then translate them properly in Persian, with a glance to Holmes/Toury map of translation studies and especially its functional branch, which includes teaching/learning translation and related methodologies and dictionaries as tools in this field among others. Therefore, we emphasize on the importance of training French translation students and the correct use of dictionaries according to Holmes/Toury theory.
On the other hand, Katharina Reiss’ (German linguist and translator scholar) theory of translation and text typology (informative, expressive and operative) and their application have been used in this research. Usually, in translation classes at Iranian universities, informative and expressive texts are present and we used these two types of texts in our corpus as well.
Also, we have utilized the theory of PACTE group from its translation competence in educational environments, through two tests among 32 undergraduate French translation students divided in two groups, as well as a review of the translation of the book written by French philosopher and writer of eighteenth century, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Le Choix de lettres de Jean-Jacques Rousseau, translated by eight master and Ph.D. students in the field of French translation and French literature to scrutinize this particular problem.
In the first case, we had advised to the first group to use only French-Persian dictionaires and to the second group to use not only the latter but also to consult inevitably French-French dictionaires in order to  translate correctly the texts. More than two-thirds of the first group of students who used only French-Persian dictionaries failed to properly translate sentences containing this type of vocabulary, while in the second group the results were considerably satisfying. Among the graduate students, this problem still persists. It seems that finding the right equivalent for this kind of vocabulary, especially for French translation students who do not have sufficient knowledge of the language, seems complicated. This is because polysemic words can usually have different meanings in different contexts. French-Persian dictionaires on the market do not always contain all the meanings associated with polysemic words, which will make it even harder for the students to deal with the translation. Also, it seems from the sample translations of undergraduate and graduate students, this problem requires a fundamental solution from the very beginning of their studies. Explaining this problem to the students and informing them about this phenomenon and the gaps in French-Persian dictionaries is one of the first things that should be presented in translation classes. On the other hand, editing these dictionaries by their publishers or publishing new ones with regard to semantic ambiguities in French seems important. It also seems necessary to use monolingual dictionaries to find the appropriate equivalent of a word in the text.
 

 

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In the present study, we analyze the semantic fragmentation and conventionalization in Persian compound nouns ending in the verbal stems –andāz ‘throw’, -band ‘fasten/close,’ -foruš ‘sell’, -gir ‘catch’, -keš ‘pull’, -paz ‘cook’, -yāb ‘find’, and -zan ‘hit’ from the usage-based perspective. The analysis is based on a 800 data set extracted from diachronic and synchronic corpora. The words produced from the general compounding pattern [XV _PRS]_N can be categorized in a range of semantic categories, including agent, instrument, location, and object. In describing the semantic fragmentation of [XV _PRS]_N, we propose the human agent as the starting meaning, from which the instrument sub-pattern is derived by the mechanism of metaphorical extension. However, to justify the object and location meanings, we consider the metonymic extension mechanism to be involved. The sense extension mechanisms do not only apply to the individual words but can happen on the pattern level. It is also argued that these mechanisms are not mechanically applied to all the patterns ending in the verbal stems, instead, it is the usage and the communicative needs of the speakers that determine the semantic fragmentation of any patterns. To illustrate this point, as a case study, we focus on the development of instrument meaning in the pattern [X-paz _PRS]_N. We show that the instrument sub-pattern is a recent linguistic phenomenon that coincides with the introduction of modern cooking equipment with mostly English names to Iranian society. The increasing use of these types of equipment has led to a new communicative need for naming such instruments. This extra-linguistic factor has motivated the pattern [X-paz _PRS]_N to be extended through analogy with English compound instrument nouns. The findings of this study may contribute to the understanding of word-formation patterns in general and compounding patterns in particular.

 

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All languages in the world use different mechanisms to create new words. compounding is a morphological process whose main function is the formation of new word-forms. In Persian, compounding is the most productive morphological process. One of the compound words is numeral ones; a numeral in the broadest sense is a word or phrase that describes a numerical quantity.  The main purpose of this research is to study the compound numeral construction [Num X] in Persian within the framework of Construction Morphology (CM) to investigate its semantic variations, the most general schema and subschemas. The data analyzed in this study has been gathered from six sources: Reverse Dictionary (Zansu) (Keshani, 1993), Persian Linguistic Database (PLDB), FarsNet, Farhang-e Bozorg-e Sokhan (Anvari, 2002), Google and Persian Wikipedia. The findings of the research show that [Num X] has different meanings (functions) and thus we can consider it as a polysemous construct. Its polysemy is not explainable at the level of words, but at the level of abstract schemas; hence, it is called ‘constructional/ logical polysemy’. The results of this study indicate that ‘distinctive property of an entity related to SEM Number and X” is the prototypical meaning of [Num X] which is the most abstract correlation among meaning and form in Persian language.

1. Introduction
Traditionally, word formation consists of two processes: derivation and compounding (Booij, 2007, p.24). Greenberg (1963, p.92) says: "it is probable that no language exists without compounding, derivation, or both. A significant number of languages exist without inflection, but without compounding or derivation, probably not." Given this level of productivity, this process holds a special place in the morphology of every language and has garnered considerable attention from grammarians and linguists. 
Numerous studies have addressed compounding in the Persian language, but numeral compounds have not received much attention. In this study, by examining these compounds and providing schemas and sub-schemas for Persian numeral compounds, and analyzing them within the framework of Construction Morphology, we will map the hierarchical relationship of schemas and sub-schemas of numeral compound constructions [Num X]. This will help us to derive a potential model for classifying these constructions within the mental lexicon of Persian speakers.
Research Question(s) 
The main question of the present study is how, based on the theory of Construction Morphology (Booij, 2010), can we consider the numeral compounds as constructions and analyze the semantic variations in the constructions? 

2. Literature Review
The theoretical framework of this study follows Construction Morphology (CM) (Booij 2010). 
The aim of the theory is a better understanding of the grammar of words, as well as the relation between syntax, morphology, and the lexicon. In the framework the notion ‘construction’, a pairing of form and meaning, as developed in the theory of Construction Grammar, is essential for an insightful account of the properties of complex words. Morphological patterns can be represented as constructional schemas that express generalizations about sets of existing complex words and word forms, and provide the recipes for coining new (forms of) words.
One of the issues discussed in this theory is compounding. According to Booij's definition (2007, p.75) compound word is as a combination of two or more words. He divided compounds in to five kinds and argued that some compounds what have been called exocentric compounds or bahuvrihi compounds are a specific semantic category of endocentric compounds based on metonymic language use. One category of compounds is numerical compounds, which are combinations of a number and a noun. These compounds are also metonymical endocentric compounds and refer to someone or something characterized by a specific and prominent feature. The present study follows the numeral compound construction; that is [Num X], in the framework of Construction Morphology to investigate its semantic variations, the most general schema and subschemas.



3. Methodology
In this study, we analyzed the nonverbal adjectival compound constructions, following the construction [Num X] in Persian and illustrated the schemas and sub-schemas of the constructions. In all the data of this research, numbers function as adjectives and are used for an entity description. The data for this research were extracted from the following sources: Reverse Dictionary (Zansu) (Keshani, 1993), Persian Linguistic Database (PLDB), FarsNet, Farhang-e Bozorg-e Sokhan (Anvari, 2002), Google and Persian Wikipedia. Since numbers are infinite, constructions formed with numbers are also potentially infinite. For example, the word "seven hundred" in the compound ‘seven hundred-legged’, although it may not exist in the real world, can be constructed based on the infinite nature of numbers and a schematic perspective.

4. Result
The present study aimed to examine the semantic variations of the  nonverbal adjectival compound constructions to determine the general constructional schema and sub-schemas governing the [[Num] [X]] construction within the framework of construction morphology. The issue observed after the semantic classification of the compounds was the semantic variations, particularly in numerals constructed with the numbers "one" and "two." Analyses showed that the numbers "one" and "two" in some numeral compounds do not appear with their literal meaning (mathematical number), but rather acquire a metonymical meaning. These two numbers, appearing with a metonymic meaning in combinations with the meaning of the constituent X (which in some cases is conceptualized metaphorically) and the construction, resulting in a new meaning formed by the [[Num] [X]] construction. 
It was also noted that this semantic variation and metaphorical and metonymic mechanisms are not present in numbers larger than "two." However, all compounds constructed with numbers share two concepts: "attribute" and "possession." Given that all countable nouns can be enumerated with the number one and other counted numbers and distinguished from each other, the [[number] [X]] construction is productive and potentially infinite.
Furthermore, it was determined that semantic variations and the formation of numeral compounds constructed with the numbers "one" and "two" can be attributed to a polysemic approach at the level of abstract schemas. Additionally, it was revealed that there is a general constructional schema and five sub-schemas for adjectival compounds with the number "one" and a general constructional schema and two sub-schemas for the number "two," corresponding to the construction [[one] [X]] and [[two] [X]]. Moreover, the primary concept of " distinctive property of an entity related to SEM Number and X” is the prototypical meaning derivable from the [[Num [X]] constructions. Finally, the findings of this study indicated that the main function of this construction is to distinguish one entity from another related to the meaning of the number and X.
 

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Prepositions, as a group of frequent and important grammatical words, play an important role in many languages, including Persian. The aim of the present study is to examine the polysemy of the preposition “bellow” within the framework of Cognitive Linguistics approach and based on two theories of Principled Polysemy (Tyler and Evans, 2001, 2003) and Image Schemas (Johnson, 1987). The research data includes a set of Persian sentences and phrases containing the preposition “bellow” that were extracted from the Hamshahri corpus (second edition). In addition to this corpus, two dictionaries, Dehkhoda and Moein, were also used. The results of the research show that the preposition "bellow" in its primary and prototype meaning expresses a situation in which an object (trajector) is located in a lower position than another object (landmark) in terms of spatial position in the vertical direction, between which there may or may not be a distance and one may or may not cover the other. In addition, "bellow" also has three meanings: "less", "dominance and control", and "influenceability", which are the result of a metaphorical expansion of the prototype meaning.

1. Introduction
The number of prepositions is usually very small in different languages of the world, but they play a very important role in the language, because they are both high in frequency and play a key role in the formation of many linguistic phrases and sentences. Cognitive study of prepositions of place domain, which is one of the most important and primary cognitive areas, can be an important approach in understanding cognitive meanings and metaphors derived from it.
The aim of the present study is to examine the polysemy of the preposition “bellow” in Persian within the framework of Cognitive Linguistics and based on the theory of Image Schemas and Principled Polysemy. The research data, which include various uses of this preposition in real texts, were extracted from two dictionaries Dehkhoda and Moein, as well as from the Hamshahri corpus.
In this study, the main question is: What is the semantic network of the preposition "bellow" in Persian?

2. Literature Review
Most research on prepositional ambiguity from a cognitive linguistics perspective has been influenced by Tyler and Evans' (2003) research in this field. For example, Tyler et al. (2011) conducted an experimental study to investigate the effect of the Cognitive Semantic approach in teaching the three prepositions to, for, and at. After comparing the results of the pre-test and post-test, they found that the scores of advanced English learners increased significantly as a result of teaching the aforementioned prepositions based on the polysemy network and cognitive linguistics findings.
Brenda (2014) analyzed the polysemy of prepositions by analyzing 417 sentences from spoken and written English, 162 of which contained the preposition over. After analyzing the syntactic and semantic aspects of over, she concluded that, contrary to the opinion of some researchers, the preposition cannot be considered an empty word without meaning, but rather it should be considered a morphological-lexical unit. By examining the polysemy of over based on the model proposed by Tyler and Evans (2003), Brenda showed that most of the meanings of this preposition are the result of the expansion of its initial and prototypical meanings, which are often spatial and geometric.

3. Methodology
This research is considered a corpus study in terms of data collection method and its data were collected from the Hamshahri corpus (second edition) as well as the Dehkhoda, Moein and Sokhan dictionaries. In terms of analysis method, it is a descriptive-analytical type that is carried out within the framework of Cognitive Semantics and based on the theories of Principled Polysemy (Taylor and Evans, 2001, 2003) and Image Schemas (Johnson, 1987). In order to collect data, the word “bellow” was searched in the Hamshahri corpus and among the cases found, those that were used as prepositions were selected as research data. Then, based on the mentioned theories, different meanings of this preposition, including the central meaning (or prototype) and marginal meanings, were discovered.

4. Results
The results of the study indicate that the preposition “bellow” in its primary and prototype meaning expresses a situation in which an object (trajector) is located in a lower position than another object (landmark) in terms of spatial position in the vertical direction, between which there may or may not be a distance and one may or may not cover the other. In addition to this prototype meaning, the preposition “bellow” also has three meanings “lesser”, “dominance and control”, and “influenceability”, which are considered metaphorical extensions of the prototype meaning. As Bratož (2014) points out, the abstract meanings of prepositions are often extensions of their spatial meanings and, as a result, are unpredictable and arbitrary, but are systematically related to each other.
The concept of “lesser” is related to the metaphor “lesser is lower”, and thus the spatial preposition bellow refers to the concept of being less. The meaning of "dominance and control" is also the result of a metaphorical expansion of the prototype meaning and refers to domination and control over something that is under something else. The meaning of "influence" is also the result of a metaphorical expansion of the prortotype meaning and conveys being under the influence and being influenced by something upstream. In this way, the systematic relationship of these marginal meanings with the meaning of the prototype becomes clear.