---

Derivational suffix “-ak” is one of the Persian productive affixes attached to different bases and creates many different meanings. Historical evidence affirms despite of the diversity of meaning, all the derivations come from the same original affix, with high potentiality in polysemy. The present article follows the cognitive-typological approach aims at investigating the polysemous behavior of the mentioned suffix while introducing the (sub)schemas of derivations in the framework of Construction Morphology. It deals also with the processes of metaphor and metonymy as two bases involved in the semantic extension. And then, by concerning the achievements of the first part with typological considerations, it shows the relationship between the cognitive processes involved in the polysemy and the typological motivations that follow them, i.e., economy and iconicity. Moreover, it examines how the typological explanations, specifically the concept of the semantic map, are not only valid for cognitivists, but also it can address more specific issues such as explaining the existence of polysemy within a single derivation. In this study, the Semantic Map Connectivity Hypothesis is also confirmed by those derivations that simultaneously imply more than one meaning, or that have undergone a change in meaning over time.
 

---

 

---

In this article, I have tried to see whether one can find any signs of Mowlavi's influence in the poetry of Hafez. Two considerations have made me deal separately with the form and the content of works of the two poets; a) the deeply static and change resistant nature of the Persian traditional culture, which makes it difficult to say whether one is facing a case of shared culture or one of poetic influence; and b) the need for use of two theoretical standpoints (intertextuality and metaphor v. metonymy) to deal with content and form respectively. The results I have come up with are as follows: 1. As regards the content, one can detect more of an empathy arising from cultural unity rather than any trace of influence of one upon the other. 2. As for the form, one cannot help noticing that Hafez is exceedingly conscious of form, whereas Mowlavi pays little attention to it. 3. Whiltst Hafez leans heavily upon metaphor, Mowlavi is greatly inclined towards metonymy; one tends to ascension, the other to movement forward along the same route. 4. Finally, Hafez does not seem to have made any greater use of the form and content of Mowlavi's poetry with an eye to emulation than of the poetry of other poets, both previous and contemporary with him.

---

Cognitive Metaphor theory claims that in conceptualization of different concepts, ordinary and poetic languages are the same in some aspects, though different in other ones. This paper aims to an analysis of creativity of Hafiz in LOVE concept. In Hafiz poetry, LOVE is conceptualized by different, though related, conceptual mechanisms of metaphor, image, personification and metonymy. However, it seems that Hafiz has used more creative mechanisms in the conceptualization of LOVE. To find distinguishing influential factors in LOVE conceptualization, two important questions are raised: what is the difference between common metaphors of LOVE in Persian and those in Hafiz poetry? And among four mechanisms proposed by Kövecses (2010), which one is more influential in artistic creativity and novelty of Hafiz poetry? Close analysis of poems consisting LOVE concept shows that Hafiz language contains the same kind of conceptualization as ordinary languages of Persian and other languages. In other words, LOVE has been conceptualized as FIRE, JOURNEY, RAPTURE, etc. However, its conceptualization is different from that in ordinary language, because the poet has creatively used four poetic mechanisms of extension, elaboration, questioning, and combining which are less frequent in ordinary language. It seems that, as it is predicted by cognitive linguists, what distinguishes literary language from ordinary language is creative use of metaphorical conceptualizations, personification, image metaphors and conceptual metonymies. Besides, among four distinguishing mechanisms, combining and elaboration seems to be the most and questioning is the least effective factor in poetic conceptualization of LOVE. Moreover, Hafiz has used many creative, novel conceptual metaphors of LOVE along with conventional ones.

---

---

In this paper, we are suggesting a website, which we have called ColloNet, for explaining lexical collocations based on frame semantics.It is going to be connected to FrameNet that is a network drawing frames of lexemes. This network not only helps us comprehend the nature of collocations, but also is an introduction to more computational linguistics researches. We have considered the word ‘dast’ to explain different functions and applications of this website. The data are collected from two Persian corpora: Bijan Khan and Persian Database. A descriptive-comparative-analytic approach has been used to compare and analyze the frames, in which the collocates, the base and the whole construction are being defined. Consequently,by comparing frames and analyzing the relations between elements, we can not only understand the type of collocation (such as simple, metaphoric or metonymic), but also obtain some information regarding historical, political, social and cultural motivations behind collocations.
 

---

The linguistic variety spoken by the prisoners and the words and expressions used by them in their conversations has attracted a lot of attention. This variety is sometimes so different from the one used outside the prison walls that it is almost unfathomable for those who have never been exposed to it. This variety is idiosyncratic in terms of phonology, morphology, and semantics. The study of prison language and its relevant words and expressions is of great significance from sociolinguistic, psycholinguistic, cognitive linguistic, and criminology points of views. Due to significance and the paucity of domestic linguistic studies on the prison language, this study, within the framework of sociolinguistics, made an attempt to bring the semantic features into considerations and delve into the semantic changes of related words and expressions in the prison language with respects to the four variables of gender, age, education, and social status and respond to the following two research questions: First, What are the main semantic changes of words and expressions in the language of prison? Second, what are the relationships between semantic changes and the four variables of gender, age, education, and social status? In order to collect the data, observation and interviews were utilized. The data included 615 and 496 idioms and expressions used by male and female prisoners respectively (total expressions amounted to 1111). The number of all interviewees was 70, consisting of 20 females from Rey Prison and 50 males from four prisons of Raja’ee Shahr, Ghezelhesar, Fashafooye, and Tehran. The results showed that four semantic processes of metaphor, Irony, metonymy, and semantic degradation accounted for the main sources of semantic changes of words and expressions in the language of prison. Regarding the effects of the four variables of gender, age, education, and social status on these semantic processes, it was concluded that gender did not bring about any significant change in the speech of male and female prisoners, though it was effective on the frequency of use of those semantic processes. Some expressions were specific only to men and some were female specific. Out of the other three variables (age, education, and social status), the two variables of education and social status had the most effects on the use of semantic changes among the prisoners. The effect of age is more than that of social status and education and is less than that of gender. In sum, it can be concluded that as education and social status increase, the use of words and expressions in the language of prison decreases. In contrast, as education and social status decrease, the prisoners are more influenced by the language of prison and they use more semantic processes in their speech.

---

This paper identifies the grammatical constructions expressing indefiniteness in Old Persian. Based on the extant data from this stage of Persian language, There had been no indefinite article before Old Persian era and its grammaticalization is the result of the bridging context 'There is only one X, the X represents a human being'. In fact, the metonymic relations triggered reanalysis of "aiva" 'one' to an 'indefinite article' which in turn paved the way for its metaphoric extension. To explain this path of development, a Construction Grammar model is adopted. This research is based on the corpus of OP gathered by Kent (1953). The investigation illustrates that the token frequency of the aforementioned indefinite article in the total NPs (4130) amounts to 0.5%. This percentage is not much high; however, it implies that it is a newly formed grammatical construction in Old Persian. In other words, it illustrates the early stages of the indefinite article grammaticalization.  

1. Introduction
The terms "Definiteness" and "Indefiniteness" are usually applied to noun phrases (for example Abbott, 2004; 2006) and encoded using different linguistic means. The most common diachronic source for the indefinite marker in the languages of the world is the numeral 'one' (Givón, 1981; Lyons, 1999; Heine & Kuteva, 2002).
Only a minority of the languages of the world have grammaticalized indefinite markers (Heine, 1997:68). In other words, languages of the world tend to grammaticalize the "definite marker" prior to the "indefinite" one (Moravcsik, 1969; Croft, 2003). In Moravcsik's (1969) sample of 108 languages, in 61 languages (56%) only definite markers were identified, whereas 5 languages (5%) contained only indefinite markers and there was no information on the existence of the definite ones; Those 5 languages are Bambara, Gipsy, Rotuman, Sundanese, and Aztec. As a result Persian deserves studying in this regard. In this research, it is investigated whether the indefinite article existed in Old Persian grammar. If the response to this question is positive, the mechanism of its grammaticalization will be investigated. The data of this research are extracted from the corpus gathered by Kent (1953).  
 
2. Literature Review
The most related work in the related literature is the work of Paul (2008). Paul describes indefiniteness marking in three stages established for Persian language. His findings are represented as follows (figure 1) (Paul, 2008:310):
 
 
 

Figure 1 illustration of the history of -i and yek
 
In his study, there is no grammatical element expressing indefiniteness in Old Persian and little attention is paid to the contexts and mechanisms of this development. In contrary to Paul’s work, in this research it has been illustrated that in Old Persian the indefinite article is grammaticalized and a part of the grammar.
 
3. Methodology
In Construction Grammar, all levels of grammar involve constructions. By construction, we mean the pairing of form and meaning which are conventionalized (Hoffmann & Trousdale, 2011, p. 2). The constructions are not just listed but instead they form a structured inventory in the speakers' mind (Croft & Cruse, 2004, p. 262-265). Due to the structured inventory of constructions which form a network, in CG model there is no distinction between lexicon and syntax; therefore, all constructions can be located on a lexicon-syntax continuum (Fillmore, 1988). This allows for constructions to possess more or less lexical/grammatical characteristics. Consequently, no mere distinction between synchronic and diachronic phenomena is observable. In this process a change in the network of constructions is said to be observable in the course of time. In CG model, the process does not operate on a single word or morpheme but on the whole construction by syntagmatic relations (Lehmann, 1992, p. 406).
The reanalysis based on metonymic relations in the context of change which in turn paves the way for metaphoric extension results in grammaticalization (Davari & Naghzguy-Kohan, 2017), being a construction creation in CG. This model and its envisioned chain of changes can be summarized as follows:
(2) Metonymic relation > reanalysis > metaphoric relation > new construction > analogy
  In this research, the distribution of aiva ‘one’ is provided in diferent contexts. After that, the aforemtioned mechanism is investigated for the indefinite article in Old Persian. In adittion, the token frequency of the indefinite article is presented in the corpus.  
 
4. Results
The frequent use of aiva 'one' before human NPs in OP has triggered its reanalysis as 'indefinite article' in mytonymic relations. Here, one can observe a linkage between numeral system (one as a numeral) and "indefiniteness concept" as a more abstract conceptual space. This can be illustrated as figure (2):

1.                                                           B                                    

	Figure 2: the conceptual shift from the numeral to indefiniteness

 
 
 

The mentioned mechanisms are responsible for the emergence of the new grammatical category filling the determination slot; the schema is mentioned again as follows:
(1) [aiva[X]_NPi]_j                              [introducing a participant into discourse "a X"]_j, X=human
In spite of this usage of aiva as 'indefinite article', its token frequency is not much high in OP. in our corpus of 8077 words and 4130 NPs, there are 21 NPs containing indefinite articles. This can be illustrated in the following figure (3):
  
    Figure 3: The token frequency of indefinite article in the corpus
 
As it is obvious, the frequency of use (0.5%) of the indefinite article is not much high; however, as Denison (2006:290-291) notes, rare patterns of low frequency should be taken seriously.
 
5. Discussion
The presence of an indefinite article in the grammar entails the existence of a determination slot. Finding determinatives in a particular position (preceding modifiers) most of the time, speakers tend to regard that location as a place where determinatives occur and by the increase of the frequency, the speakers abstract a prehead pattern for determinatives (Sommerer, 2012:204-205). Following the establishment of the determinative slot, it turns into a 'gravitational pole' which attracts items (Krug, 2000). Actually, a syntactic slot is regarded as a position which invites linguistic elements to grammaticalize there. This is also true for the indefinite article in OP; the emergence of the determination slot triggered the grammaticalization of the indefinite article. Therefore, 'determination slot' and 'indefinite article' are inseparable notions.
 
6. Conclusion
In this research, the grammaticalization of the indefinite article in Old Persian is studied. The first bridging context which leads to the grammaticalization of indefinite article is the occurrence of numeral aiva 'one' before human NPs. In simple words, the context is 'There is only one X', here the X represents a human being. In this context, two readings of aiva are possible: a. there is one man, not more; b. the indefinite article reading, to introduce one person into discourse. In the latter reading the hearer reanalyzed aiva as an indefinite article based on metonymic relations. The reanalysis paves the way for the metaphoric extension from a numeral to a more grammaticalized item, namely an indefinite article. This conceptual shift/metaphoric extension becomes possible due to the fact that both 'numeral one' and 'indefinite article' mean 'one entity'. The difference is that the former means 'one' and the latter 'one out of the type'. The path of this grammaticalization is represented in (2):
(2) Numeral one   →    numeral one, indefinite article   →  indefinite article
 

---

Idiomatic expressions show complex pattern of conceptualization and need interaction between metaphor and metonymy to empower the tools to further develop conventional metaphoric and metonymic analysis into more complex patterns of interaction between the two. Metaphor and metonymy alone are not so powerful tools to justify extended domain of idioms in Koohmara Sorkhi. Idiomatic expression based on metaphor or metonymy alone are not so much found. There seems to be correlation between compositionality and the role of metaphor in conceptualization in idiomatic expressions. Compositional idioms are expounded metaphorically. Extension and reduction of conceptual domains (both source domain and target domain) are among most prominent processes in understanding idioms. Conventionality of meaning is found where semantic structure is very opaque because conceptual expansion of frame is not possible and necessary historic and cultural information is absent; hence meaning is conventionally associated with idiom. After all, there exist cases that availability of historic information makes idiom nonconventional.

---

---

This paper examines the differences between two types of categorization and then the use of conventional metaphor and metonymy and their relationship among Persian-speaking Iranians. Recent studies on categorization show that Persian speakers, similar to the Chinese, Koreans, and Japanese, categorize based on thematic relationships, unlike the European Americans who categorize based upon taxonomic relations. These studies have shown that Eastern Asians, with regard to categorization, act on the syntagmatic axis and the units in the context, and Westerners act upon the paradigmatic axis. Therefore, the hypothesis was put forth that these different cognitive functions are also represented in the application of metaphor and metonymy that is, those who use the category-based classification are more likely to use metaphors, and those who are inclined to use the relationship-based categorization tend more toward using metonymy. Examining the Persian corpus of 30,000 sentences confirmed this hypothesis. Persian speakers, who categorize based on relationships, use metonymy, which works on syntagmatic axis and based on the contiguity of two things, more than metaphor, which is based on the similarity and paradigmatic relation between two entities. The present study confirms this fact again that cognition is not the same in all human beings.

---

This article explores the polysemy of four negative non-verbal prefixes in Persian language (zedd ‎‎'against, opposite of', bi 'without', nā 'not' and qejr 'not, non-') based on Principled Polysemy ‎framework (Tyler and Evans 2001, 2003). First, the primary sense of each prefix is determined ‎and then it is explained how non-primary senses are derived from the primary one, hence ‎demonstrating the semantic network of each prefix as a radial category. In this research, using ‎AntConc software (Anthony, 2014), first all the occurrences of the four prefixes were extracted ‎from the Hamshahri Corpus Version 2 (AleAhmad, Amiri, Darrudi, Rahgozar & Oroumchian, ‎‎2009) and then in order to analyze research data, some of them were randomly selected. The ‎findings of the study indicate that only in three of the four prefixes under study, polysemy is ‎observed, and that the frequency of use, ease of derivation and predominance in the semantic ‎network are the best criteria for determining the primary sense. The conceptual phenomenon ‎involved in the polysemy of these prefixes is metonymy. Data analysis shows that metonymical ‎shift occurs at two levels: at the level of morpheme/prefix sense and at the level of word-‎formation, and that the former leads to more straightforward relations within the semantic ‎network. This is due to the fact that the latter requires a more complex line of imagination which ‎automatically translates into a corresponding complexity of relations in the semantic network and ‎significant reduction in the type frequency of non-primary senses as a whole.‎