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 In this research, teaching Persian nominal suffixes and affixoid (kar, gar, ban, baz, -ande) in derived words to non-Persian speakers using two explicit and implicit methods has been discussed. In direct/explicit approach, the achievements and fundamentals of cognitive morphology approach developed by Hamawand (2011) were used, and in indirect/incidental approach, texts containing derived words were taught to language learners. In this study, 16 Farsi learners at advanced level from Azfa Center of Allameh Tabatabai University and Shahid Beheshti University were examined in the form of two control and experimental groups. Language learners participated in two tests as pre-test and post-test. The results of this research, based on descriptive statistics, showed that teaching noun suffixes by using Hamavand's achievements and cognitive morphology and the three cognitive functions of categorization, configuration and conceptualization along with prototype and periphery concepts can be effective and useful in improving vocabulary knowledge. In general, it seems that informing Persian learners about the lexical and semantic structure of derived words increases their linguistic knowledge and learning level.

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The present research is a case study of gender differences of language usage in a pair of non-identical twins (a boy [Arsham] and a girl [Arshida]), performed on their using in Farsi Lexicon. The descriptive-analytic research is based on Mac-Arthur-Bates’s Communicative Development Inventories (CDI), according to which the twin’s lexicon has been divided into 22 categories, to which two extra categories are added. The language corpus is the twin’s recorded daily speech including 2535 words, categorized based on the framework. The frequency of each lexical group is evaluated throughout the research, together with the analysis of data accomplished by dependent T-test. The T-test results illustrated that there is a significant difference (p< 0.05) between the average of the twin’s usage only within the groups of 6, 10 and 16 as well as on their score of total scale (diagram 1 and table 26). This is while their average is near to each other in all other groups. Arsham’s average is higher than Arshida’s in any case of significant difference, showing his better doing in some groups. In the groups number 2 and 13, their doing and average is the same. Other similarities and differences in their lexicon can be summarized as follows: 1) Verbs in their lexicon have the highest frequency; 2) Abstract words have the least frequency; 3) Broadness and variety in the boy’s lexicon is more than the girl’s (of the whole corpus, 56.25% is devoted to the boy and 43.74% to the girl).

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In the present investigation, experimental framework has been used to clarify the nature of lexical information arrayed against the lexical entries of Persian transitive verbs. In the test, we categorized the transitive verbs into 5 groups. What differs them is the number of argumental structural and sub-categorization frame options of each verb. We are going to find out which one is more fundamental in sentence processing, and that whether the verbs with less structural argument and sub-categorization frame options are processed faster or not. Twenty normal native speakers of Farsi participated in these tests. The subjects were divided into two groups. They had to perform a secondary visual lexical decision task in the immediate vicinity of the verb while listening to the sentence for meaning. Reaction times to this secondary task showed the representational complexity of  the verbs. This is called "cross modal lexical decision method". Using DMDX software program, the tests were performed, and using ANOVA and t-tests, the data were analyzed. The results showed that both the argumental structure and sub-categorization frame possibilities of verb can affect sentence processing due to time.  

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The purpose of the present research is to investigate the formation of locative nouns in Persian which are not semantically similar in spite of their resemblance in functions. The suffix "-zâr" in Persian, for instance, indicates both the concept of location and multiplicity of something: "golzâr and lâlehzâr". The other suffixes of location, however, do not bear this semantic property. It's worth mentioning that along with the above mentioned process, two other processes of "compounding" and "derivation-compounding" are also investigated here. Thus, the authors in the present research have attempted to investigate these semantic constraints which are dominant on such suffixes, using the achievements of cognitive morphology such as categorization theory, conceptualization and configuration. Eventually, the authors attempt to introduce the cognitive potentials contributing to the formation and usage of these locative forms

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Van Leeuwen's socio- semiotic network of social actors (2008), is a framework in Critical Discourse Analysis which helps discourse analysts discover how the social features ,settled in the underlying levels of discourses, are represented on the upper levels. This study tries to explore the way social actors are nominated and categorized in “Al” which is a story about the culture of nomadic people in Iran by Mohammad Bahmanbeigi, a famous Iranian novelist and the winner of the UNESCO’s literacy prize. By social actors we mean every single person that plays a role or occupies a specific position in a given society. Particularly, this study attempts to find answers to the following questions:
1. How does the writer use nomination and categorization to express his own viewpoints about the social actors of Nomadic societies of Iran?
2. Can these nominations and categorizations reflect the nomadic people's viewpoints about social actors at the time of nomadic people's illiteracy?
Adopting Van Leeuwen's model of representing social actors, a lot of researcher have tried to explore the social actors of different political and educational discourses but the innovation of this study is that it tries to change the direction of studies from political discourses to literary ones.  Another point is that most of the studies about the representation of social actors have relied mostly on the frequency of the socio- semantic features for their final discussion and results but this study has focused more on qualitative analysis than just counting the frequency of the socio- semiotic features. Although counting frequencies can reveal significant patterns, it is better not to make great claims for numbers. On the contrary, it is important to realize that frequencies often shift with the stages in the writer’s argument and may not be an overall characteristic of the text (vide. Van Leeuwen, 2008: 31).
 The results of this study show that the representation of social actors in “Al” is purposeful and serves to control the viewpoints of the society. The writer, using the advantages of nomination and categorization, expresses his viewpoints covertly and portrays the oppression of women in nomadic societies. On the one hand, the writer categorizes women generically to demonstrate them as the social actors engaged in common complications and on the other hand, he nominates women specifically and individually to picture them as distinguished and independent persons. Men's appraisements are all positive and represent the nomadic people's opinions about males but the appraisements of women, according to the social norms dominating the text, are changing. Using the advantages of deviation, the writer introduces the main character of the story as a deviant actor involved in opposite activities to challenge social norms and beliefs.

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The realization of the argument structure of nouns corresponding with ditransitive verbs is a complicated subject since those nouns involve categorical, morphological, syntactic and semantic features of both nouns and verbs. The aim of this article is to survey the argument structure including categorization, syntactic structure and phonetic and semantic realization of main ditransitive verbs and their corresponding nouns in Hawrami Kurdish-a north western Iranian language. Dividing and describing the nouns into possessive and agentive nominals, this article analyzes and contrasts them with corresponding verbs under the framework of MP/DM. The results show that syntactic structure of main verbs and their corresponding nouns involve verbal category (VP) to introduce theme and low ApplP to introduce benefective goal or location. The subject of the sentence merges as the possessor in EzafP_poss of possessive nouns and as the same agent in VoiceP of agentive nouns. The heads of the TP and CP select vP in statements; hence, the heads of PEP and DP choose nP in nominals. The root in possessive and the whole VP features in agentive nominal move to np and PEP to value their nominal and Ezafe features. Agentive nouns have more nominal properties and take plural, (in) definiteness, possessive and adjectival markers and also do not take manner adverbs. Therefore, argument structure analysis of nouns corresponding with ditransitive verbs using the MP/DM approach shows that syntactic structure is the driving engine for the categorization, syntactic structure and phonetic and semantic realization of possession and location transfer of ditransitive verbs and their corresponding nouns in Hawrami.
 

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Categorization as a form of organization and placing different things, including phenomena, objects, events and the like in different groups, is a kind of cognitive function in human beings that occurs based on the common "taxonomy" of categories or the thematic "relationships" that occur between them. Research shows that Western and East Asian cognitive performance, especially that of the Chinese, is quite different in terms of categorization; Accordingly, Westerners classify things on the basis of "category" (taxonomic categorization) and East Asians do so on the basis of "relationships" (thematic categorization). The present study evaluated and analyzed their cognitive performance by performing two tests in the form of visual and verbal questionnaires on 50 Persian male and female speakers. The visual questionnaire showed that out of 50 Persian participants, 70% carried out the categorization based on "relationships"; the verbal questionnaire also confirmed the result of the former and showed that 76% of Persian speakers, during the process of categorization, have considered the "relationship" criterion and, in fact, have acted on the syntagmatic axis. On this basis, it can be concluded that, firstly, the cognitive function is not the same in all human beings, and secondly, the cognition of Persian speakers in the field of categorization operates on the syntagmatic axis, unlike Westerners who in fact "classify" and act on the paradigmatic axis

1. Introduction
Categorization is a mental function by which the brain classifies and organizes various objects, instances, events, and entities in general. This cognitive operation is based on the structure of human knowledge of the world around and is one of the most fundamental cognitive phenomena. The question is whether all human beings enjoy the same cognitive functions due to having knowledge and living in a single world. Research on categorization shows that, for example, American students primarily classify by category, but categorization among East Asians, especially the Chinese, Koreans, and Japanese, deal with categorization differently and in terms of "relationships". The issue in the present study is to identify which of the two criteria, that is category or relationship, is utilized by Persian speakers for the aim of classification.
 
2. Literature Review
Smiley and Brown (1979) have shown in an article that American students categorize primarily according to taxonomic similarity; in other words, they classify based on categories (Smiley & Brown, 1979: 249-257).
Markman and Hutchinson (1984) believe that the natural way of perceiving, categorizing, and organizing the world is relational and thematic, but that children gradually, as they grow older, direct their attention to categorical relationships (Markman & Hutchinson, 1984: 4).
Numerous researchers have also addressed the issue of distinguishing between the cognitive functions of Westerners (European Americans) and Easterners (East Asia, especially China, Korea, and Japan) and have shown that from different cognitive perspectives, there are fundamental differences between these two groups (Ji et al., 2000; Nisbett et al., 2001; Nisbett, 2003). A portion of the different ways of thinking of humans have cultural origins and affect the judgment of individuals and their decision-makings (Ji et al., 2004; Ji & Yap, 2016).
 
 
3. Methodology
The present research has been conducted in a quantitative and descriptive approach through two visual and verbal questionnaires. This test was previously performed on a number of American and Chinese children by Liang-hwang Chiu, a developmental psychologist, and was later performed on American, Chinese and Taiwanese students at the University of Michigan students by Li-jun Ji, Zhiyong Zhang, and Richard Nisbett. In the present study, 50 Persian-speaking male and female students (25 females and 25 males) in the Master's Program of Linguistics within the age range of 23 to 50 years residing in Tehran participated in the research.
 
4. Results
Examination of the visual questionnaire showed that Persian speakers categorize differently from English speakers. Of the 50 male and female participants, 35 categorized both images 1 and 2 in terms of "relationship." 7 people categorized both images according to the type of "category". In one of the pictures, 8 people considered the relationship component for categorization, and in another, category or taxonomy was their criterion for categorization. In fact, most Persian speakers performed similarly to the Chinese and Korean participants in terms of visual categorization. The answers provided to the verbal questionnaire confirmed the results obtained from the visual questionnaire.

Figure 1
Thematic categorization versus taxonomic categorization of Persian speakers in response to the visual questionnaire

 
Figure 2
Thematic categorization versus taxonomic categorization of Persian speakers in response to the verbal questionnaire
 

 
 
5. Discussion
The predominant tendency of Persian speakers to categorize according to "theme" and, in other words, to consider a kind of "relationship" between phenomena or things; 70% of Persian speakers categorized based on relation, 14% according to category, and 16% by both the relationships and categories. This dominant tendency in thematic categorization can also be seen through the answers given to the verbal questionnaire. Out of a total of 50 participants, 38 people categorized according to "relationship", 5 people according to "category" and 7 people performed with a combination of relationships and categories. Among those who categorized entities with a combination of criteria that is, considering both the relationship and category, there was also a predominant tendency toward the criterion of "relationship"; this means that most participants preferred thematic classification to categorical classification, and, for example, out of ten questions, most participants classified 7 questions based on thematic relevance and only 3 questions according to taxonomic similarity.
 
6. Conclusion
Numerous studies have shown that Westerners categorize according to the similarity of taxonomic features between two things, and East Asians conduct the same action according to thematic categorization and according to the relationship between the two entities. Examining this issue not only shows that cognition is not the same in all human beings, but can also be helpful in studying the cognitive function in language-related issues. Accordingly, people who categorize by theme or relationship actually act on the hypothetical syntagmatic axis, and those who categorize by taxonomy or the similarity of characteristics carry out linguistic classification based on the hypothetical paradigmatic axis. The results of the tests performed in this study show that among Persian speakers, the dominant tendency in categorization is to consider the criterion of "relationships". It seems that Persian speakers pay more attention to the proximity of entities than the similarity and possible paradigm among them

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Literary criticism and theory, due to its interdisciplinary approach, often encompasses literary, philosophical, social, and historical concepts. This makes understanding theories and applying them to literary texts complex and difficult. Against this background, Issa Amankhani's book "A New Look at Literary Theory" (1400) is an original and critical study that aims to explain and refine literary theories, sources, and also the application of these theories in literary texts with a new approach and in simple language. The main principle and premise of the book is that literary theories have emerged through "self-grounded authoritarianism" and the emergence of any "theory" is due to its "parallel work" and "opposition" with the theory. Therefore, the basic premise of the book is based on the emergence of "anti-authoritarian" theories, and based on this, all literary theories are divided into three approaches or three subgroups of author/subject-oriented theories. It divides the anti-author/subject theories and the anti-structural theories and classifies them into one of the three approaches mentioned above on the basis of the "dominant element" and "family resemblance" of each theory. However, the approach of the new foundation of the book, which, besides its value and originality, comes from the innovative mind of the writer, critic and inquisitor, suffers from frequent simplifications and reductionisms, limitations and finally "contradictions" in the course of writing. "Fundamental" that we will explain in detail the various aspects in the rest of the article. The present article, while reading and carefully examining the said book; It suggests and shows that the respected author, in the next editions, even if possible, points such as the book as a textbook, more flexibility, avoiding restrictions on categories, comprehensiveness and avoiding simplification and reduction. - Zeid's diligence.
Extended abstract
1. Introduction
Literary criticism and theory, due to its interdisciplinary approach, often encompasses literary, philosophical, social, and historical concepts. This makes understanding theories and applying them to literary texts complex and difficult. Against this background, Issa Amankhani's book "A New Look at Literary Theory" (1400) is an original and critical study that aims to explain and refine literary theories, sources, and also the application of these theories in literary texts with a new approach and in simple language. The main principle and premise of the book is that literary theories have emerged through "self-grounded authoritarianism" and the emergence of any "theory" is due to its "parallel work" and "opposition" with the theory. Therefore, the basic premise of the book is based on the emergence of "anti-authoritarian" theories, and based on this, all literary theories are divided into three approaches or three subgroups of author/subject-oriented theories. It divides the anti-author/subject theories and the anti-structural theories and classifies them into one of the three approaches mentioned above on the basis of the "dominant element" and "family resemblance" of each theory. However, the approach of the new foundation of the book, which, besides its value and originality, comes from the innovative mind of the writer, critic and inquisitor, suffers from frequent simplifications and reductionisms, limitations and finally "contradictions" in the course of writing. "Fundamental" that we will explain in detail the various aspects in the rest of the article. The present article, while reading and carefully examining the said book; It suggests and shows that the respected author, in the next editions, even if possible, points such as the book as a textbook, more flexibility, avoiding restrictions on categories, comprehensiveness and avoiding simplification and reduction. - Zeid's diligence.
2-Theoretical framework
Based on the theoretical and philosophical foundations of literary theories, the present article has criticized the views, opinions and divisions of the book "A new look at literary theory" written by Isa Amankhani.
3- Research method
This article is based on a library study and was written with a descriptive-analytical method. The present article is written based on "sympathetic" dialectic and dialogue and "critical" attitude and avoiding "sentimentalism" in order to "scientifically" explain some ambiguities, shortcomings and conflicts in the book.
4- Findings of research and discussion
The book "A New Look at Literary Theory" is one of the critical and scholarly books on literary theories that aims to analyze, review and classify literary theories with a new approach. Through discussions and new classifications, this book has thoughtful words about literary theories. However, the fact that it is new leads some parts of the book to be questioned. By finding some common elements in literary theories and relying on the greatest "family resemblance" that the theories have with each other, Amankhani intends to divide all modern literary theories into three subgroups of "subject" theories: Author-Centered," "Subject/Author-Anti-Author," and "Anti-Structuralist." At first glance, this categorization leads the audience, especially students, to encounter specific, revised, and transparent discussions. But this approach of the book ultimately leads to simplification, generalization, restriction, inflexibility, reductionism, and distortion of the chronological and temporal line of theories. With its new approach and through the classifications it presents, the aforementioned book needs to be put through its paces and will eventually, if its approach is accepted, become a comprehensive and consensus-based "textbook" for students. This is because the author's perception of the theories and their classification into only one of the three approaches mentioned, as shown throughout the article, causes many conflicts and contradictions.
5-Conclusion
It is suggested that the respected author, in the next editions, pay attention to points such as whether or not the book is a textbook, more flexibility in demarcating and delimiting theories, avoiding restrictions on categories, comprehensiveness and avoiding simplification.
References:
Eagleton, Terry (2013), Introduction to Literary Theory, translated by Abbas Mokhbar, 6th edition, Tehran: Nash-e-Karzan.
Bertens, Hans (1391), Basics of Literary Theory, translated by Mohammad Reza Abolqasmi, 3rd edition, Tehran: Mahi.
Cohen, Tams (2014), The structure of scientific revolutions, translated by Saeed Zibakalam, 5^th edition, Tehran: Samit.
Schleiermacher, Friedrich, 1998, Hermeneutics and Criticism and Other Writings; Translated and edited by Andrew Bowie; first published, United Kingdom, by Cambridge University.
Terdiman, Richard, 1989, Discourse/Counter-Discourse, The Theory and Practice of Symbolic Resistance in Nineteenth-Century France, Cornell University Press.
 

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This paper examines the differences between two types of categorization and then the use of conventional metaphor and metonymy and their relationship among Persian-speaking Iranians. Recent studies on categorization show that Persian speakers, similar to the Chinese, Koreans, and Japanese, categorize based on thematic relationships, unlike the European Americans who categorize based upon taxonomic relations. These studies have shown that Eastern Asians, with regard to categorization, act on the syntagmatic axis and the units in the context, and Westerners act upon the paradigmatic axis. Therefore, the hypothesis was put forth that these different cognitive functions are also represented in the application of metaphor and metonymy that is, those who use the category-based classification are more likely to use metaphors, and those who are inclined to use the relationship-based categorization tend more toward using metonymy. Examining the Persian corpus of 30,000 sentences confirmed this hypothesis. Persian speakers, who categorize based on relationships, use metonymy, which works on syntagmatic axis and based on the contiguity of two things, more than metaphor, which is based on the similarity and paradigmatic relation between two entities. The present study confirms this fact again that cognition is not the same in all human beings.